Commitments Inked in Paris: Can India Deliver by 2020?

Abstract

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change was adopted at the close of the 21st Conference of Party on 12 December 2015. This agreement has been approved after a marathon negotiation in which parties under the aegis of the United Nations have finally agreed on the terms and conditions to implement it by 2020. The prime objective of the Paris Agreement is to ensure member states of the United Nations take appropriate and concrete actions in combating the menace of climate change that poses a challenging threat to humanity. It includes keeping temperature rise below 2°C by this century and limiting the temperature increase even further to 1.5°C above the pre-industrial levels. India has announced voluntary pledges during the conference which include carbon intensity growth by 33–35 per cent over the 2005 level, to raise the share of non-fossil fuel power to 40 per cent by 2030 and to produce 175 gigawatt (GW) of renewable power by 2022. Hence, the basic objective of this article is to examine India’s commitments and its initiatives to combat climate change in line with the Paris framework agreement to be implemented by 2020 and also to highlight the implications and drawbacks which India confronted.

Keywords

Paris Agreement India carbon dioxide climate change fossil fuel Kyoto Protocol

Introduction

The 21st Conference of Parties or commonly known as COP-21 on climate change held in Paris from 30 November 2015 to 12 December 2015 has been hailed as successful negotiation by the 195 parties which aimed to limit the effect of global warming by 2030. This conference assumes significance with the adoption of a common framework in which concrete actions are expected from the developed countries, including the major contributors to global greenhouse gases (GHG) emission (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2015, p. 1). The objective of the Paris conference is to start implementing the initiatives by 2020 to which the parties have committed. This achievement has come in the wake of previous conference on climate change which failed to outline any concrete plans nor arrive at a consensus agreement to combat the menace collectively (ibid., pp. 1–2).

India played a key role during the negotiation process and emerged as the strong voice for the developing countries which insisted for stronger actions from the developed nations (Goswami, 2015). Though developed countries have pledged to aid developing countries in enhancing power sectors by developing clean, efficient and environmental friendly energy, yet these pledges remained ambiguous and a distant visions since the developed nations are yet to ratify and deposit their instrument of ratification to the treaty. So, the questions arise whether these tall pledges will materialise into concrete actions as agreed in the treaty or will they simply make lofty agreements to avoid criticism from civil society and environmental activists who have constantly raised the issue and the challenges which emanate from global warming due to the prolong inaction from the parts of developed countries. Well, the pictures are blurred at this stage or it may have immediate effect and meet the time frame as stated in the text of the treaty. India alone will not be able to meet the set objectives without the aid of developed countries in terms of finance, developing and accessing green technology that are expensive but crucial for transforming the power sectors through the use of renewable energy to ameliorate the impact of climate change.

Substance of the Paris Agreement and Its Limitations

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change is an agreement that comes under the framework of the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC) which deals with the issues of combating GHGs emission mitigation, adaptation and finance (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015b, para 1, p. 2). The deal will require all countries to tackle climate change rather than just the wealthy one (The Sydney Morning Herald, 2015). Representatives of the 195 members of the UNFCC negotiated the language of the treaty which resulted in the unanimous adoption on 12 December 2015 (UN News Centre, 2015). The Paris Agreement is negotiated under the 1992 UNFCC which will come into force by 2020 to replace the existing Kyoto Protocol (Climate Focus, 2015, p. 2). French Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius who headed the conference describes, ‘The outcome as ambitious and balance plan which is a historic turning point in an attempt to mitigate the impact of global warming’ (Doyle & Lewis, 2015). According to United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, ‘The agreement demonstrates solidarity. It is ambitious, flexible, credible and durable’ (United Nations, 2015a). This agreement is indeed significant and assumed prime importance especially for countries in Africa, small island developing states (SIDS) and least developing states to combat the menace of climate change that continues to wreak havoc and pose a challenging effort in the coming years (ibid.).

The basic substances of the Paris Agreement are outlined in Article 2 which includes holding the global temperature rise below 2°C and further limiting the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels to reduce the risks and impact of climate change. Countries must increase the ability to adapt to the impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low GHG emissions development in a way that will not threaten food production. It also makes finance flows consistent to ensure low greenhouse gas emissions and climate resilient development (United Nations, 2015b). This agreement will be implemented according to the equity and the principles of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) and capabilities in the light of different national circumstances. The other positive outcomes which emerge from this conference are the agreement of the developed countries to take the lead and initiate in mobilising finance and enhancing technology support and capacity building which are critical for poor countries that needed funding to combat climate change. The deal also encourage trillions of dollars of capital to be spent for constructing sea walls and programmes to deal with poor soil and developing renewable energy sources like solar and wind power. The agreement also includes provision that required developed countries to send US$100 billion annually to developing countries by 2020 Time (2015, December 12). Besides, this treaty makes a binding provision on reporting requirements every five years while leaving other aspects of the deal such as emission targets which will be undertaken by the individual countries as non-binding (ibid.).

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change faces flaks on the ground that it did not guarantee necessary cuts in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouses gases which are causing the atmosphere to warm with potentially disastrous effects. The voluntary reduction announced by the member states even if implemented will only capture temperature rise below 2.7°C which is well into the danger zone for the world (McCarthy, 2015). Although this treaty was adopted unanimously, the possibility of discord will always be present and might be confronted by different government back home. For instance, the Copenhagen agreement signed in 2009 did not last and subsequently fell apart (ibid.). It could also be seen that until the concluding day of the Paris conference, the three largest emitters, that is, China, America and India, which account for half of the world’s CO₂ emission were not bound to reduce GHGs. Earlier, carbon cuts were meant only for the developed countries considering their capability and afforded to meet the necessary requirement of developing green and environmental friendly energy. But today, with developing countries like China and India whose economy are booming, they are also bound to take voluntary action to cut CO₂ emission (ibid.).

There are shortcomings levelled against the agreement in which developed countries have failed to do more in terms of extending financial aid to the poor countries who have been facing the heat of global warming impact on various fronts be it agricultural failures, drought, floods, natural calamities or rising sea level that have inundated the low laying areas of SIDS Time (2015, December 12). Moreover, governments have failed to keep humanity’s interests beyond narrowly defined short-term interests and the lack commitment to keep temperature rise below 1.5°C above the pre-industrial level has left people vulnerable to dangers (The Guardian, 2015b).

Impact of Climate Change on Developing Countries

The impact of climate change will certainly hit and be felt mostly in developing or low income countries. These countries will ‘experience gradual sea-level rises, stronger cyclones, warmer days and nights and more unpredictable rains and larger and stronger heat waves’ (The Guardian, 2013). Countries such as Burma, Bangladesh and India will face severe cyclones from the onslaught of climate change (ibid.). Poor people in developing countries will be affected severely that may entail numerous problems such as drought or heavy rainfalls. The consequences will be challenging that may lead to shortage of water or floods in some regions which can create a disastrous condition in the long run. Climate change may also induce migration which will affect other countries. So, the clamour for action to cap temperature and sea level rise assume paramount priority and collective responsibility of all the parties (World Bank, 2014). In addition, developing countries are the most vulnerable because they have fewer resources to adapt be it socially, technologically and financially (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n.d.). On the other hand, the arable land, biodiversity and water resources of SIDS are facing pressure from sea level rise. Among these, water supply is likely to be exacerbated by future climate change impact in SIDS (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n.d., p. 24). Developing countries are also vulnerable to health problems as a consequence of climate change which may lead to infectious diseases especially in tropical region such as Africa. Heat waves can have catastrophic health effects on elderly people. People are prone to respiratory diseases and asthma due to temperature rise (Kositia, 2007). Increased global warming poses serious threats to national security; food insecurity can in turn lead to conflict over resources (ibid.). People in poor developing countries stand very vulnerable on account that people are depending heavily on natural environment for their requirements with minimal resources to deal with the impact of global warming (European Commission, n.d.).

Although, India is not responsible for this death-defying menace, yet it wanted to be a part of the solution (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, n.d.b, p. 8). For instance, India’s dense coastal populations stand very vulnerable to rising sea level that may inundate vast parts of the coastal areas which will result in displacing large population and also affecting agricultural activities. The changing pattern of the weather which are taking place such as extreme heat, drought and the record-breaking floods in Chennai not only affected agricultural and food security but also resulted in water shortages and outbreak of diseases (Deutsche Welle, n.d.). India is expected to experience unusual and unprecedented spells of hot weather which will occur far more frequently and under 4°C warming, the western coast and southern India are projected to shift new high temperature climatic regimes with significant impact on agriculture (World Bank, 2013). According to the World Bank,

An increase of 2 degree Celsius in world temperature will impact India’s summer monsoon and turn it highly unpredictable. Droughts are expected to be more frequent in some areas such north western India, viz., Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh. Crops production may fall significantly due to extreme heat by 2040s. Moreover, the melting of glaciers and the loss of snow cover over the Himalayas are signed that may threaten the stability and reliability. The northern Indian rivers which are fed through glaciers, particularly Indus and Brahmaputra may have long-term consequences. Melting of glaciers will definitely result in the rise of sea level, salt water intrusion may occur in the coastal areas which may impact agriculture, degrading ground water quality and contaminating drinking water in the areas. Low laying cities such as Kolkata and Mumbai are vulnerable to impact of sea level rise, tropical cyclones and riverine flooding. This may also impact on agriculture and food security. By 2050s India will need to import more than twice the amount of food grain that would be required without climate change. (ibid.)

It further reveals that ‘Decreases in river flow will hampered hydro power plants and increases the physical damage from landslides, flash flood, glacial lake outburst and climate related natural disasters’ (ibid.). ‘And above all, the force of climate change on agriculture and livelihoods will increase the number of climate refugees in the near future’ (ibid.).

India’s Stands on Climate Change

India has emerged as the fourth largest emitter of GHGs in the world (Business Today, 2015). But this does not imply that India is the main emitter of CO₂ which contributes to the warming of the atmosphere. A glance from the historical angle revealed that the developed countries which include the rich European countries, the United States, the United Kingdom and so on are the primary countries that have contributed in the major emission of CO₂ since 1900–2004 (The Guardian, 2009). The Industrial Revolution has boosted the economy of the developed countries which consume fossil fuels that contributed to climate change by adding CO₂ in the atmosphere and resulted in the rise of temperature (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). Today, when the issue of climate change has reached a critical stage, the developed countries must take full responsibility of leading from the front in reducing the rate of CO₂(Saran, 2015).

India’s argument on climate change was very candid during the Paris conference. Developed countries need to do more on their parts for their high carbon emissions. Some countries who emerged as major emitters have failed to ratify the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (The Hindu, 2015). The accelerating rate of CO₂ emission in the atmosphere does not emanate only from India but it has begun since the industrial period whereby Western countries have benefitted the most from the fossil fuels and in return aided in transforming their economy and propelled rapid economic growth for decades (Hindustan Times, 2015). Today, India has been made a scapegoat on this perilous issue, although it has played minimal role in generating pollutants and massive development of fossil fuels (NDTV, n.d.). In fact, the binding provision of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change to report its action every five years should not apply for developing countries like India considering its recent rise in economic development. Moreover, the rate of emission by India is only 3.96 per cent of the global CO₂ emissions which was released in a report by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation way ahead of the Paris conference (The Economic Times, 2015b). The report released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation shows that India emitted 1,146 million tonnes of CO₂ in 2008 while total global emissions were 28,962 million tonnes (Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2015, p. 78). Another limitation which India faces is the reluctance of the developed countries to offer technologies that are environmental friendly. This has derailed India’s endeavour to act on climate change (ibid.). During the COP-21, India along with other developing countries stressed that developed countries like the United States must commit to greater reduction in the amount of GHGs they emit and take larger responsibility to commensurate with the damage they have done to the environment over the last decades as they transformed their economy (Wall Street Journal, 2015). Developing countries like India are looking at advanced countries to contribute to US$100 billion dollar annually by 2020 to aid developing countries transition to clean and efficient energy. To materialise the agreement, the advance countries must fulfil their commitment in a credible, transparent and meaningful manner (ibid.).

To shoulder the responsibility of mitigating the impact of climate change, India is also a part of the ‘Mission Innovation’ which includes 20 member countries such as the United States, Canada and China which pledge to double their investment in clean energy research and development in the next five years. This is a joint initiative by the governments and the private investors to speed up green technologies as parts of the Paris Agreement to aid in curbing GHGs emission (ibid.). According to Prime Minister Narendra Modi, ‘Innovation is vital for combating climate change and ensuring climate justice. We need research and innovation to make renewable energy much cheaper, more reliable and easier to connect to transmission grids’ (Government of India, 2015).

The Paris Agreement and India’s Commitment

During the COP-20 held in Lima, India’s position was crystal clear, although India has not rolled out any concrete outlines to combat climate change. According to Prakash Javadekar, ‘collective action which was based on the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities should form the basis of continued action. Developed countries must scale up their mitigation ambition and urgently fulfill their promises for providing financial and technological support to the developing countries’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2014, p. 4). He insisted, ‘The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) are to be nationally determined. The INDCs should include all elements including mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology and capacity building’ (ibid.).The fortnight long negotiation had paved the way for member states to submit their national commitments to cut GHGs emission prior to the Paris conference (The Times of India, 2014). Although the Lima conference provided no roadmap for climate finance, yet the basic principles remained intact such as CBDR. In fact, the outcome from the Lima conference was indeed important since India’s concerns were adequately addressed (ibid.).

Meanwhile, the Paris conference assumes a very significant and crucial role in the wake that members have to announce their national policies agreed during the Lima conference which will be implemented by 2020. India laid strong emphasis on two concept, namely, climate justice and sustainable lifestyles (The Times of India, 2015b). According to Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India’s commitment will be ‘guided by the ancient belief that people and planets are inseparable and that human well being and Nature are indivisible’ (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015a). He outlined India’s target and commitment by 2030 which includes

reduction of emission by 33–35 per cent of 2005 level and to produce 40 per cent of power from non fossil fuel. India will also strive to expand renewable energy by adding 175 Giga watts by 2022. Efforts will be made to enlarge forest cover which is vital for absorbing at least 2.5 billion tonnes of CO₂. (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015a)

India also aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels through levies and to cut down subsidies. Efforts are being made to switch over to clean and efficient fuel, transform cities and public transportation in order to alleviate the menace of global warming (ibid.). The other initiatives which India has charted out under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi as parts of the climate change mitigation includes Swachh Bharat Mission, cleaning of rivers, Zero Effect and Zero Defect, Make in India, Smart Cities Mission and housing for all (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, n.d.b, p. 8). Creating Climate Resilient Urban Centres and Sustainable Green transportation Network are also a part of climate change initiatives taken by India (ibid., p. 11).

Apart from the aforementioned commitments, New Delhi also pledged to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030. It has also stated clearly its intention to increase non-fossil fuel energy will be achieved with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance which include from the Green Climate Fund. Preliminary estimate of climate change cost is peg at US$2.5 trillion between 2015 and 2030 (The Economic Times, 2015a). India’s efforts are based on its voluntary pledge made during the Copenhagen/Cancun conference to reduce emission intensity to 20 to 25 per cent from its 2005 levels by 2020 (ibid.).

Championing the cause of developing countries, India demanded that rich countries must take the lead in cutting GHG emission and also to contribute more funds for poor countries to fight the ravages of climate change (The Guardian, 2016). India, which is the fourth largest emitter, has put forth its argument and insisted that industrialised countries such as United States, Britain and Germany should cut the most and help poor countries adapt to the changing environment (ibid.). India’s argument rested primarily on the principles of equity and CBDR as enshrined in the convention. It should be noted that GHGs emission from developed countries have occupied two-thirds of the carbon space in the atmosphere which continually warm the atmosphere (AnanthanhaKrishnan, 2015). New Delhi insisted that developed economies should allow the remaining space of emission amounting to 1,000 billion tonnes of CO₂ till the end of the century to those countries who are deprived of the benefits of the Industrial Revolution. It is imperative for rich countries to provide developing countries with the basic support to transform to a green economy, providing funds, encouraging innovations and transferring of technology (ibid.). The outcomes from the Paris Agreement indicate how member states agreed to voluntarily reduce the reliance on fossil fuels as a step to ease CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere which is the major source of causing global warming. The parties will initiate action based on the ‘nationally determined contributions’ (NDC) through quantified and measurable actions. India’s demand for decadal review of NDC did not succeed and instead the UNFCC will now scrutinise the compliance of the parties every five years. The second impediment is that oil producing countries like Saudi Arabia spearheaded a tighter goal of limiting temperature rise, pegging at 1.5°C instead of those countries affected by climate threats (ibid.).

The Road to 2020: Ratification of the Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change which was adopted on the 12 December 2015 began its signing ceremony on 22 April 2016 at the UN headquarters in New York. The signing ceremony was organised on the eve of Earth Day. A total of 174 states and the European Union signed the agreement and 15 states deposited their instruments of ratification on the opening day (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n.d.). As of 3 August 2016, there are 180 signatories to the Paris Agreement and 22 countries have deposited their instrument of ratification, acceptance or approval accounting in total for 1.08 per cent of the total GHG emissions (ibid.). India which was also a part of the conference signed the treaty on the opening day in which the Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Prakash Javadekar, represented India at the high level signing ceremony (The Indian Express, 2016a).

After signing the agreement, the next crucial step is the ratification of the agreement by the competent authorities in the respective countries. This will be an uphill task and a time consuming process, though India has committed to ratify by 2016 (The Indian Express, 2016b). In the case of India, approval of the parliament will not be required for the government to ratify the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. This agreement can be approved by the cabinet which is more than enough to implement it (ibid.). The failure of India to enter the elite Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG) has cast doubt for early ratification of the agreement. If India is admitted into the elite group, it will pave the way for moving forward on the Paris Agreement. India has committed to increase 40 per cent of its power capacity by 2030 via clean sources in which nuclear fuel will constitute a third. Currently, nuclear power constitutes only 3.91 per cent of India’s clean energy (Sethi, 2016).

Timely implementation of the commitments will be the key to mitigate climate change impact. Developed countries must expedite the process of ratification of the treaty given the readiness of SIDS like Marshall Islands, Barbados, Fiji, Tuvalu and Mauritius which have minimal role in the rise of CO₂but bear the most from climate change impact and have deposited their instrument of ratification (ibid.).

India’s Initiatives to Combat Climate Change

India’s action plans after adopting the treaty include measures to discourage the use of fossil fuels and to bring down carbon footprint by levying ₹400 per tonne green cess on coal. The proposed initiative known as the Compensatory Afforestation Funds (CAF) Bill 2015 which will unlock ₹400 billion of funds for the ‘Green India’ initiative is expected to boost forest cover. The purpose of CAF is meant for states to undertake afforestation programmes to increase the density of existing forests and boost tree cover in the country (Press Information Bureau, 2016a). Plans are afoot to control vehicular pollution by switching over to Bharat VI emission norms, policies on waste management and so on. These plans are primarily meant to meet the sustainable development goal as well as containing climate change (ibid.). Some of the major initiatives which the Ministry of Coal, Power, New and Renewable Energy has been launching include the world’s largest renewable energy programme by scaling up the target for solar energy. The target is envisaged at 20,000 MW of solar generation by 2020 which is further pushed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to 100,000 MW. Already the ministry has achieved 19,000 MW of solar projects and the remaining 20,000 MW could be met by 2017 (ibid.).

The other initiatives which India and France have decided to implement as parts of the COP-21 commitment are the establishment of the International Solar Alliance (ISA). The idea to undertake this project as Prime Minister Narendra Modi has emphasised is to ‘fulfill the dream of providing universal access to clean energy in view of decreasing costs and improving connectivity grid’ (The Guardian, 2015a). Solar energy will be the foundation for new economy in the 21st century. It will serve as a boon for lighting the villages and homes that are still in darkness. Initial investment undertaken by India to set up the alliance headquarter in India are fixed for US$30 million and the ultimate goal is to raise US$400 million from the membership fees and international agencies. A few companies have already partnered in this project which includes Areva, Engie, Enel, HSBC France and Tata Steel (ibid.). French President Francois Hollande took keen interest in the project sensing the ISA as a vehicle which will drive French interests as well. This prompted other developed nations like the United States, the United Kingdom, the Netherland and China to follow suit and become a member of the ISA steering committee. The foundation stone of the ISA headquarter was laid by French President Francoise Hollande and Prime Minister Narendra Modi in late January 2016 (ibid.). But questions arise at this stage about the ISA’s objectives and position. There are already international organisations working for this purpose such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) headquartered in Abu Dhabi with 145 members, the International Energy Agency, the Renewable Energy Efficiency Partnership, &&REN21 and so on (Vickery, 2016). So, how will the ISA work in order to avoid any conflict or should the ISA supplement the activities carried out by IRENA? A clear and defined role of each organisation will aid in achieving the stated project to combat climate change through collective efforts. There are other underlying issues that concern India’s leadership in the ISA which includes India’s increasing dependence on coal as primary method of energy and its protectionist measures for its local solar entrepreneurs that may undercuts internationalisation of solar development (ibid.). But in spite of these impediments, the ISA project could be a tremendous boon for India on the world of energy and environment stage and even enhance its image in the world arena (ibid.).

It should be noted that on 22 April 2016, a number of countries from Australia, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Maldives, Mali, Namibia, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Peru, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Uganda, Zambia, India and France met at the United Nations headquarter and set a new stage in the formation of the ISA. The meeting is aimed at accelerating massive deployment of solar energy in their countries and agreed to take concerted action in this front. Targeted programmes will be launched on voluntary basis to better harmonise and aggregate the demand for solar finance so as to lower the cost of finance and facilities, the flow of more than US$1000 billion investment in solar assets in member countries. Second, mature solar technologies need to be scaled up which is deployed in small scale at present. Third, they emphasis on strategic and collaborative solar research and development in order to bolster efficiency and integration of solar power as well as increase the number of solar applications available (International Solar Alliance, 2016). These countries agreed to start analysing and sharing the needs, objectives and obstacles to deployment of those applications and seek the benefit collective action under the alliance. In fact, the first two programmes are already launched by an initial group of countries during the meeting, namely, a programme on ‘Affordable finance at scale’ and a programme on ‘Scaling solar applications for agricultural use’. The initial steps and design of these programmes will be reviewed by ministers on the first ISA Conference that will be held in New Delhi in the near future (ibid.). India is confident and hope that the ISA will ensure vibrant platform to bring together countries with rich solar potential to aggregate demand for solar energy and thereby reduce the prices. This project will promote collaborative solar research and development and capacity and facilitate the deployment of existing solar technologies at an increasing pace (ibid.). These initiative and programmes which India along with its partners under the aegis of the ISA has taken to implement are based on their commitment made during the Paris conference of climate change. The implementation required collective efforts to concretise their pledge and benefit other poor countries who could not afford to meet their requirement for lack of fund and other sources.

In fact, India has emerged as a key player which runs one of the largest renewable capacity expansion programmes in the world. In terms of generating wind energy, India ranks the 5th largest wind power producer in the world accounting for 23.76 GW (65.2 per cent). It has also targeted to increase further to 60 GW of wind power installed capacity by 2022 (Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2015, p. 48). India has also envisaged to increase biomass installed capacity to 10 GW by 2022 from the current capacity of 4.4 GW. About 70 per cent of the country’s population depends on this energy for domestic purposes and constitutes 18 per cent of the total energy which is used in the country (ibid., pp. 48–49). Efforts are being made to achieve the target of 63 GW installed capacity of nuclear energy by the year 2032. India considers nuclear energy as safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source to meet the growing demand of electricity in the country (ibid.). To further enhance energy efficiency, the ministry of power through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency has launched the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) with an aim to strengthen the market for energy efficiency. The programmes under this mission have resulted in an avoided generation capacity addition of about 10,000 MW in between 2005 to 2012. The government target to save 10 per cent of the current energy consumption by the year 2018–2019 (ibid.). The other initiative which India has taken includes developing climate resilient urban centers. A number of schemes have been launched to transform and rejuvenate urban areas. These include Smart Cities Missions, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and the National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY; ibid., p. 51). Under the smart cities mission, 100 smart cities will be planned with the objectives of developing new generation cities. On the other hand, AMRUT is meant for developing 500 cities with an objective of providing basic infrastructure services such as water supply, sewerage, storm water drains, transport and development of green spaces and parks (ibid., p. 52). The companies act of 2013 directed companies to spend 2 per cent from their annual profit on corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities. Estimates indicate that CSR funding of about 220 billion annually will be invested in environment initiatives from this window (ibid.). The other initiatives which include Smart Power for Environmentally-sound Economic Development (SPEED) endeavour to electrify rural areas based on centralised renewable energy system. The small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) Cluster Programmes for Energy Efficiency which covers more than 150 clusters all over the country has resulted in the substantial energy saving, improvement and improved competitiveness. Another initiative by Small Industry Development Bank of India (SIDBI) in 500 SMEs which is spread over 40 industrial clusters is expected to save annually 30,000 tonnes of GHG emissions (ibid., p. 57).

Evaluating India’s Commitments and Initiatives

The first commitment to reduce emission intensity from its GDP by 33–35 per cent by 2030 is expected to attain the target. This is because India has achieved about 12–15 per cent improvement in efficiency energy since 2005–2015 (Pulakkat, 2015). Meanwhile, the second commitment on increasing renewable energy to 175 GW by 2022 will not be an easy achievement for India (ibid.). Though India is blessed with 300 sunny days, yet implementing solar mission encountered several issues. Solar power development remains expensive and risky for developers and lenders. Besides, financing and bankability are emerging as hurdles in promoting solar mission such as the case of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM; Basu, 2011). It should also be noted that India’s solar potential is estimated at 749 GW while tapped solar energy is still less than 1 per cent (The Indian Express, 2015). Similarly, wind energy can also contribute to efficient energy alternative that India is looking ahead to (ibid.). But in reality, in only three states wind energy is in use, namely, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, whereas in other states, their utilities are mainly seen as an annoyance rather than a benefit of supplying energy source (Singh & Parida, 2013). Moreover, lack of servicing and maintenance expertise to cater wind farm upkeep has also impeded their utilities in a large scale. In fact, wind energy, if proper maintenance is maintained, is environment friendly and helps in reducing CO₂ (ibid.). These are major problems at the ground level that impeded the initiatives to switch over to clean energy sources.

Third commitment of increasing forest cover to absorb 2.5 billion tonnes of CO₂will mean creation of an additional five million hectares of forest (Pulakkat, 2015). According to the 2015 Forest Report, the total forest cover of India is 701,673 sq. km which comes to 21.34 per cent. India also increases its forest cover by 3,775 sq. km (Forest Survey of India, 2015, p. 40). In spite of such achievement, India also loses 2,511 sq. km of prime forest which is a cause of concern. It could be seen that northeastern states are suffering a major blow with a decline of 628 sq. km of forest areas since 2013 (Chakravartty, 2015). To boost forest cover, the Green India Mission (GIM) which aimed for afforestation at 10 million hectares of land is merged with the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in 2015 to further improve forest cover. Presently, under this mission, green work such as water harvesting, afforestation and farm forestry are being implemented (The Times of India, 2015a). The government initiative to set up Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) to oversee funding for afforestation and forest conservation is a step in the right direction to tackle climate change (Press Information Bureau, 2016b). But this initiative has been opposed by the tribal communities since it will have negative impact on tribal interest and development (The Hindu Business Line, 2016).

Most of the policies being considered by India to fight climate change are yet to have maximum tangible effect. It can also be seen that the implementation processes are sluggish and move at a snail pace. For instance, the effort to reduce fossil fuels has not been translated into reality nor its consumption has come down. According to the World Bank, energy generation from coal in India in 2013 stand at 72.8 per cent which indicate that India’s dependence on fossil fuels as energy source still continues to dominate (World Bank, n.d.). In fact, coal is a major component of India’s energy supply, accounting for 45 per cent of its total energy, 60 per cent of installed electricity capacity and 71 per cent of electricity generation in 2012 (Australian Government, 2015, p. 19). Similarly, the consumption of petroleum products has steadily increased over the years. In 2012–2013, the consumption was 157.057 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) with a growth rate of 6.02 per cent. In 2013–2014, the figure was 158.407 MMT with a growth rate of 0.86 per cent. During the year 2014–2015, the consumption petroleum products in India stands at 164.987 MMT with a growth rate of 4.5 per cent (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, 2015, p. 6). India’s quest to use nuclear energy as an alternative source to fossil fuels are also facing hurdle in the wake of the failure to enter the NSG. The advantage for India in entering the NSG group will help in meeting its climate change commitments and reduce the use of fossil fuels which contribute to the growth of GHGs (The Times of India, 2016a). Moreover, India will be able to access low cost, clean nuclear energy, latest technologies which can contribute to further foster economic growth in the future (First Post, 2016). Apart from the external impediment, India is also facing internal problems in developing nuclear energy such as the recent people’s protest movements at Jaitapur, Kovvada, Mithi Virdi and Haripur whereby these projects are having direct clash with local livelihoods and land rights. In addition, local people are becoming restive against uranium mining (Singh, 2013). The other policy initiatives pledged by India such as to set up six solar cities in northeast India, that is, Guwahati, Jorhat, Dimapur, Itanagar, Kohima and Agartala to reduce dependence on conventional source of energy is yet to take off (The Times of India, 2016b).

There are also shortcomings within the National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) which India has implemented to deal with the impact of climate change. The mission on sustainable agriculture does not address the needs and problems faced by poor farmers such as fuel and fertilizer shortage (Byravan & Rajan, 2012, p. 10). The mission on enhancing energy efficiency also failed to bring any new innovative ideas, it narrowly emphasised on improving energy in particular subsector rather than across the energy system. The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme which aim to enhance energy efficiency targeted only large manufacturing firms and neglected the small industries which may be more polluting (ibid., p. 11). Moreover, the contentious issue of forest diversion does not figure in GIM on how to redress this problem (ibid.). It can also be seen that the sustainable habitat mission does provide clear plan for the poor and vulnerable section in urban transport and planning (ibid., p. 12). In addition, the mission on sustaining Himalayan ecosystem also contain limitation such as inadequate attention in conducting research programmes; it does not address forest degradation, impacts of dams and so on on poor people (ibid.). The water mission does not prioritise management of water (ibid., p. 13).

Combating Climate Change and SAARC Initiatives

SAARC member states have noted the need of combating the menace of climate change in the region since 1987 summits. It is vital to strengthen and intensify regional cooperation to preserve and protect the fragile ecosystem of the region from threats posed by climate change and natural disaster (SAARC, n.d., p. 1). The fourth SAARC summit held in Islamabad in 1988 has initiated the study on the ‘Greenhouse Effect and its Impact on the Region’. In 1997, the SAARC Environment Action Plan have been adopted which provides the blue print for the members to implement the recommendations in countering the impact of climate change. The primary goals are to enhance environmental management, protection environment, to update national environmental action plan and implementation of the plan at the national and regional level and so on (SAARC, 1997). The other initiatives undertaken includes ‘SAARC Declaration on Climate Change’ in 2007 which aimed to facilitate access to funding, transfer of environmental friendly technologies, binding GHG emission commitments by developed countries and equitable sharing of the burden as key aspects to combat climate change (SAARC, 2007).

The ‘Dhaka Declaration and SAARC Action Plan’ 2008 aimed to further create opportunities and regional cooperation and fostered south–south support in developing technology and knowledge transfer and to boost the regional level action plan on climate change with the help of national activities (SAARC, 2008). The Thimphu SAARC summit held in 2010 with the theme ‘Towards a Green and Happy South Asia’ saw leaders of the region reiterating their firm commitments to give effective responses on both mitigation and adaption measures. SAARC leaders are determined to become the world leader in low carbon technologies and renewable energies (Thimphu Statement on Climate Change, n.d.). SAARC also agreed to review the Dhaka Declaration and SAARC Action Plan on Climate Change, set up Inter-governmental Expert Group on Climate Change, plant 10 million trees as parts of regional afforestation and reforestation campaign, stress on conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, monitoring mountain ecology and so on (ibid.).

India as an emerging actor and a leader in South Asian subcontinent has a major role to play in aiding its neighbouring countries to combat climate change in the region. The subcontinent countries which include Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are vulnerable to the consequences of climate change (Bhatiya, 2014). ‘Low-lying Bangladesh stands vulnerable to flooding and cyclones in the Indian Ocean. Flooding can wreak devastating impact in South Asia’s low-lying and urban areas. Metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata and Dhaka which is home to over 46 million people and which keep on rising face greatest risk of flood-related damage over the next century. Extreme heat has already disrupted the growing seasons for regions in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh’ (ibid.). These consequences will pose a challenging task especially for India in the region. Climate Change will force people to migrate to areas more productive and bearable from the effect of climate change. This key issue is a testing time for India which has to lead in combating climate change in South Asia by implementing the Paris Agreement considering the threats to low-lying countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan and parts of India which lies on low elevation coastal zone (LECZ; Rajan, 2008, p. 1). The impact of climate change has the potential to cause conflicts, violence and migration due to water scarcity, food insecurity, lack of shelter and livelihood constrains (Ratna, 2015).

During the 16th SAARC meeting, India has committed to set up climate change fund known as ‘India Endowment for Climate Change in South Asia’ with the objective of aiding member states to meet the urgent adaptation and capacity building needed to combat the impact of climate change (The Hindu, 2010). It also committed to set up climate innovation centre that would boost the region in developing sustainable technologies by utilising the local resources (ibid.). The menace of climate change in the region needs to be fought collectively by all the members through better communication network in the region. It is vital for members to share their information to agriculture techniques, methods, products and other services which will aid farmers in adapting to the changing environment and overcoming the food security in the region (The Economic Times, 2016).

Challenges in Harnessing Renewable Energy

There are impediments which India faces in harnessing and developing renewable energy. Different ministries which are in charge of energy sector such as Ministry of Coal, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Department of Atomic Energy, Ministry of Power and the Ministry of Renewable Energy (MNRE) are not working in tandem but they are concerned only for their own turf. This created an obstacle for the country’s efforts to develop renewable energy. In fact, ‘there is a huge scope for synergies between different energy sources that could enhance economic efficiency as well as meet the energy needs of the country (Bhushan, 2014). For instance, the growth of grid-connected renewable energy will depend on the stability of the transmission grid and need for balancing power in the grid. This can happen only if there is integration between quick startup power sources like hydropower and gas and intermittent power sources like wind’. Similarly, the MNRE is concerned only with its own territory and the fact is that the ministry does not have a vision for a holistic development of the renewable energy sector (ibid.). ‘The approach adopted by MNRE is leading to inconsistent policies. Opportunities for interlinkages between various sources of renewable energy and besides the ministry fail to utilise its limited resources optimally. To boost economic efficiency, better utilisation of infrastructures and environmental protection, India needs a long-term policy framework to integrate the different sectors of energy. This policy should specify the role of the renewable energy in addressing the needs of energy access and energy security’ (ibid.).

The other shortcoming which India is expected to encounter is in terms of finance. Finance played a pivotal role in meeting the overall expenses and costs of developing and procuring green technologies. Lack of finance will certainly impair the agreed commitments which India and the rest of the member states have reached at during the Paris conference. Developed countries may not face any barriers to switch over to green technology and environment efficient energy, construct floods dams across the rivers or built sea wall to prevent intrusion of sea level rise and so on since they can afford to finance for these expensive projects. But countries like India will face massive task, given its financial constraint at its disposal. Preliminary estimates indicate that India will need around US$206 billion between 2015 and 2030 for implementing adaptation actions in agriculture, forestry, fisheries infrastructure, water resources and ecosystems. Besides, it also needs additional investment to strengthen resilience and disaster management. Asian Development Bank’s study on South Asia indicates that India needs roughly US$7.7 billion by 2030s to meet the adaptation cost in energy sector alone. The report also projects the economic damage and losses in India from climate change to be around 1.8 per cent of its GDP annually by 2050. Mitigation requirements are even more enormous (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, n.d.a). On the other hand, the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) estimate the mitigation activities for moderate low carbon development which will cost around US$834 billion till 2030 at 2011 prices (ibid.). It should be noted that so far India’s climate action have been largely financed from domestic resources. To scale up its climate action plans, India will require greater resources. A preliminary estimate suggests that at least US$2.5 trillion at 2014–2015 prices will be required for meeting India’s climate change actions between now and 2030 (ibid.).

But in spite of all these barriers, the Emission Gap Report 2014 released by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has recognised India as one of the countries which is on course of achieving its voluntary goal of carbon reduction. There are myriad plan of actions for clean energy, energy efficiency in various sectors of industries, steps to achieve lower emission intensity in the automobile and transport sector (Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2015, p. 47). So, India is making a progressive stride towards achieving its goals albeit the pace may be slow and uneven, yet there are glimpse of positive hope and outcomes from Indian side to meet its targets.

Implications on Indian Industries

The implementation of the Paris Agreement will usher positive and negative implications. In the case of India, the positive impact includes benefits for green energy generators due to concessional funds which in turn help to build transmission infrastructure. Solar equipment makers like Jain Irrigation, Scheneider Electric India and Siemens India will gain more benefits as the demand for solar equipments will increase. Automobile and components companies like Bosch India, Mahindra Reva and Hero Electric will also reap benefits since they are working on green technology. Firms which provide energy efficiency such as ABB, Alstom, Siemens, L&T will also gain from the demand of industries (The Economic Times, 2015a). On the other hand, the negative consequences will see heavy investment in low emission technology by oil and gas companies such as RIL, IOC, HPCL, BPCL and Cairn India. Tatas, Aditya Birla Group, Reliance Industries and so on will have to use more of renewable energy due to government enforcement of strict purchase of renewable energy. As India plans to cut the use of thermal coal, companies such as NTPC, Adani Power and Jindal Steel and Power will have to rework on their growth plans. Meanwhile, TATA motors, Maruti and M&M will have to invest more on low emission technology (ibid.).

Implementing the contours of the Agreement is a mammoth task for India which includes progressive review of goals, monitoring frameworks and revise wording of CBDR according to the national circumstances (Byravan & Rajan, 2015). The issue of sharing the remaining carbon space is another problem which India is facing. Developed countries will swallow up the remaining carbon budget unless adequate and equitable mechanisms are taken at the earliest stage. The other factor which India needs to act on is in terms of providing human services in a sustainable manner to its vast undeserved population that will requires domestic, social and economic transformation in a balance range. This plan will give a boost to delink India’s total dependence on fossil fuels and set an example to the other developing countries (ibid.).

Conclusion

The commitments which India has pledged in Paris seems to be ambitious and it is premature at this stage to conclude since the process albeit being taken and implemented, yet a lot of efforts should be made in expediting the mission 2020. So, also the road to 2020 will not be an easy ride for India. Most of the policies such renewable energy mission, use of nuclear fuel, afforestation mission and so on which India has implemented are yet to have widespread tangible impact on the ground. Myriads of problems have in fact affected the scope of using solar and nuclear energy as an alternative source of energy which are environmental friendly. The consumption of fossil fuels still continues to remain very high and in fact is increasing every year. This has further contributed to the increase of GHG emission instead of reducing its emission rate. It should be noted that other initiatives which India intended to implement as part of combating climate change are yet to take off such as the additional missions, namely, the NAPCC and National Action Plan for Climate Change and Human Health (NAPCCHH), National Mission on Waste Energy Generation, National Mission on India’s Coastal Areas and National Wind Mission. Other initiatives to boost planning of cities such as Smart Cities Mission is yet to begin; Swachh Bharat Mission which aims to keep our environment clean from waste products has not yet achieved the desire result. Moreover, India needs to deepen its ties with members of nuclear elite groups and chalk out the future plan in the realm of nuclear energy. Concerted efforts should also be made to garner support for NSG membership so that India can gain access to latest technology and supply of nuclear fuel that can foster energy efficiency. Besides, India needs to accelerate the process of implementing the climate change missions and alternative initiatives and also review the earlier missions in order to fulfil its stated goals of combating climate change by the turn of 2020.

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