Abstract
Many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America have experienced political transition from the authoritarian form of government to democracies. While some countries have successful transitions, some others have gone through a painful process and still some others remain as ‘problematic democracies’. Sustaining democracy is often as difficult a task as establishing it. As the pre-conditions associated with successful democracies such as prior formation of a nation state, a homogeneous population, an industrial economy, a strong middle class and shared traditions of civic culture are notably absent, democratic transitions became problematic in many countries. Myanmar is not an exception. Politics in Myanmar has long been dominated by two interlinked issues: the resolution of ethnic minority question and the restoration of democracy. National reconciliation and successful transition to democracy are unlikely to be achieved without addressing the ethnic minority question, which have for centuries strained the centre–periphery and majority–minority relations in Myanmar.
Democratisation is the process that leads to the introduction of not only democratic constitutionalism but also a process that consolidates, sustains and makes democracy stronger and viable. Nehginpao Kipgen’s book entitled Democratisation of Myanmar examines how democratic transition takes place in a country, which was under military rule for nearly five decades. The author vividly has tried to unravel the factors and circumstances that have contributed to democratic transition in Myanmar.
The book is divided into six chapters. The introductory chapter begins with theoretical debates on democratisation, democratic transition and democratic consolidation. It also examines some of the widely studied democratising agents such as civil society, elites, external agencies and institutions, which are considered to have relevance to Myanmar.
The first chapter focuses on the different phases of political developments in Myanmar beginning with the formation of Union of Myanmar, its independence from the British in 1948, establishment of parliamentary democracy (1948–1958), insurgency problems, split in Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL), resignation of Prime Minister U Nu, militarisation of Burmese society and the military coup in 1962. The way the country was militarised and institutionalised under the authoritarian rule of General Ne Win from 1962-1989 and the failure of Burmese Way to socialism, students protests have also been analysed.
The second chapter examines the historical and theoretical concept of civil society. It also examines the status, role and activities of civil society groups operating within and outside Myanmar since independence under different regimes. It is well documented that the civil society in the urban areas was not independent of the state’s control. In contrast, there was more space for the civil society in the rural areas, more so after the armed groups signed ceasefire agreements with the government.
The third chapter explores the role of elites since the country’s independence. Politics in Myanmar has traditionally been dominated by the ‘personality and interests of the top leaders’. The author stresses the importance of elites either in the government or in the opposition in facilitating the democratisation process in Myanmar.
The fourth chapter analyses the role of external agencies such as foreign governments, international organisations, etc., in democratic transition and also examines politics of sanctions imposed by the United States (US) and European Union (EU) versus engagement policies pursued by ASEAN, China and India and the involvement of the United Nations in Myanmar’s political transition.
The fifth chapter examines the role of institutions by analysing the National Convention, the military’s seven-step road towards democracy, the role of Sangha (Buddhist monks), the 1990 election and the entrenchment of military role, the 2010 election and the first steps towards restoration of democracy and the 2012 by-election and the emergence of parliamentary democracy.
The conclusion summarises the work and attempts to theorise on the democratic transition taking place in Myanmar and its future prospects.
The book is brilliantly organised and it would be a pleasant exercise for the readers to proceed from one chapter to the next without feeling the usual boredom. Further, the presentation of theoretical debates, presentation of data and analysis of the political processes and phenomena involving the process of democratisation in Myanmar bears ample testimony to the scholar’s ability to analyse in a clearly drawn out theoretical framework with praiseworthy detachment and objectivity.
The book would have been more comprehensive had it dealt more in detail the challenges that the democratisation process would have to address along the way. The success and failure of transition and consolidation of democracy in Myanmar would depend on how much the military, ethnic minorities and civilian governments are willing to compromise and sacrifice. The author has rightly highlighted the complicated decision-making processes and choices that both the military and civilian leaders in Myanmar have to make.
The author states the formation of many ethnic-based local NGOs and socio-political organisations, which provided help and assistance to the displaced persons and played crucial role in social mobilisation. The Cyclone Nargis provided more opportunity for the civil society groups to become more active. The 2008 Constitution, which recognised the role of civil society in the political process, also triggered the emergence of many more civil society groups. Student activism and the use of media were all instrumental in creating an atmosphere of change. The author is at pains to discover that that despite these changes, civil society was still not vibrant enough to be the triggering factor for the transition in Myanmar.
The author examines how and to what extent personality and interests of the leaders have been the norm in the politics of Myanmar. He analyses the role of leaders, starting with U Nu, Ne Win Than Shwe, Aung San Suu Kyi and elite politics within ethnic groups. Except U Nu led-AFPFL government, military leaders had been in control for several decades especially in urban areas. However, the author has rightly pointed out that there has not emerged one top leader among the ethnic minority groups who has been widely recognised or has assumed the elite role in Myanmar’s ethnic politics. Internal divisions existed both within the military elites as well as the civilian elites. However, despite internal differences major split within the military elites did not occur. The author points out that it was the military elites who played a major role in the democratic transition process because of their control over the state’s apparatus.
The book also analyses how the external agencies such as the US, the EU, the United Nations through its General Assembly and Security Council have played an important part in the democratic transition. While the US and EU imposed restrictions and sanctions on Myanmar, the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council passed non-binding resolutions urging Myanmar to initiate dialogue for national reconciliation and to respect the will of the people. In contrast, ASEAN pursued the policy of constructive engagement and was more concerned with the stability of the region rather than regime change. The book also covers the engagement of India and China in Myanmar with a view to enhancing their respective national and security interests. The author rightly states that conflicting approaches of these external agencies did not help the democratisation process. The business-oriented diplomacy, absence of unanimous support of the Security Council and lack of unilateral military intervention by the US and EU had strengthened the military regime.
The author also states that institutions played an important role in the process of democratic transition. The institutional changes which are considered important for democratic transition are holding of elections, developing the party system and relationship between the executive and the legislative branches. It was only after the military was ensured of its institutional place that the country moved towards parliamentary democracy. Further, the NLD leadership’s desire to protect and achieve its political objectives led to a compromise with the military.
The book highlights the manner in which democracy has arrived in Myanmar with pre-eminent role for the military conceded to it in the form of reservation of 25 per cent seats in the national parliament. Transition in Myanmar occurred strictly in line with the military’s seven-step road map towards a ‘disciplined and flourishing democracy’. The separation of civil and military relations, which is one of the hallmarks of a true democratic system, has not yet taken shape in Myanmar.
Kigpen’s book provides an in-depth analysis as well as insights and will be of great interest to scholars and researchers of Asian and Southeast Asian studies, especially those concerned with Myanmar. Myanmar is progressing towards democracy but whether Myanmar will be able to consolidate democracy or not is still not clear. Sustaining democracy in Myanmar is going to be a big challenge. Consolidating democracy in Myanmar requires, among others, the recognition of ethnic diversity, a comprehensive constitution, an appropriate political structure, matured leadership and equitable sharing of power and resources.