Abstract
Biotechnology is defined as ‘any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use’ (Article 2, Convention on Biological Diversity 1993). The definition of biotechnology is self-explanatory regarding the vast possibilities of its applications. Biotechnology has immense potential to transform the agricultural sector by eliminating the problem of low productivity due to natural uncertainties (rainfall, drought, etc.) and pest attacks. This book is an edited volume that brings together 10 chapters by 14 researchers to examine the status of biotechnological development in India along with a detailed study of constraints in regulation, pricing, farmers’ behaviour, labour issues and health and environmental aspects.
The first chapter by N. Lalitha and P. K. Viswanathan gives an overview of the development of biotechnology in agriculture, starting from the background to the changes that took place with time from traditional biotechnology to modern biotechnology. Agri-biotechnology took a new direction after the introduction of genetically modified (GM) or Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton to control American bollworms. The positive effects of Bt cotton included increased production and productivity that reflected on the farmers in terms of income, food supply, employment and socio-economic status. The proverb ‘With great opportunities come great responsibilities’ is relevant in this context of concerns associated with the use of Bt technology, that is, environmental and biosafety concerns, health safety issues and deprivation of traditional farming practices due to corporate control. Despite this, many countries continued to adopt the technology and the number went up from 6 countries in 1996 to 28 countries in 2012. Among these, 18 are developing countries having agriculture as their mainstay and planting GM crops in a greater area than developed countries. India being one of these developing countries is growing Bt cotton; both public and private sectors are involved in research and development. Whereas progress of the public sector is comparatively slow and focused on developing advanced varieties against drought, heat, flood etc., the private sector is working on developing disease- and pest-resistant varieties. One of the major reasons behind the growth of the private sector is their proprietary rights over rDNA techniques. The chapter also converses about the importance of cotton, significant events in Indian cotton history, and susceptibility of cotton towards biotic and abiotic disorders. Bt cotton has profoundly impacted India, and significant effects are visible in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. A comparison of pre- and post-Bt scenarios shows an increasing trend in the area, production and yield. Other two major positive outcomes are India’s relative contribution to the global economy and inclusive growth. On the other hand, various issues such as the problems of sucking pests, secondary pests and other diseases have emerged. Also, ignorance of refuge strategy, infrequent users of integrated pest management and similar management systems add to unreliability of the current farming system.
The second chapter by V. Kumar explains developments in cotton cultivation in India. This chapter, besides giving an overview of the institutions involved in cotton research and development, also provides a step-by-step procedure for seed production, maintenance and distribution, starting from the release of variety to processing, packaging and labelling. Seed being the most crucial part of the value chain deserves utmost attention; thus, male-sterility-based hybrids and other related issues are also discussed.
The third chapter by A. Indira encapsulates the contribution of biotechnology in the Green Revolution and the involvement of the Indian government as a regulating authority. Since 1991, after Monsanto approached India for the introduction of Bt cotton, the regulatory authorities and the government of India have been dealing with the regulatory process; the important events are tabularized in the chapter. Further, the author discusses the shortcomings in the existing system such as production and distribution of unauthorized seeds, farmers’ current practices and the impact of GM crops on other plants and so on. This part mainly probes the three-tier structure of the regulatory regime. Several revisions have been made on the basis of the recommendations of the Agricultural Biotechnology Taskforce, Mayee Committee and others to deal with the limitations of the regulatory system. The author also discusses the details of recommended procedures, legal aspects, adopted changes and several other criterions finalized by government bodies. The next section offers a precise dialogue on practices in different countries (USA, Canada and European countries) regarding safety and environmental regulations for GM crops.
The fourth chapter by K.R. Ashok et al. moves beyond the basic understanding of Bt technology and addresses the empirical outcomes of the economic and environmental aspects of Bt cotton in four cotton-producing states of India, viz. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As per a survey of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton growers, Bt technology led to an increase in the yield of cotton. Survey data show that pesticide expenditure was much higher in the case of non-Bt cotton as compared to Bt cotton. Maharashtra (₹2,391 per ha) reported minimum pesticide expenditure, whereas Andhra Pradesh (₹4,707 per ha) had the highest expenses. Tamil Nadu acquired the highest profitability in Bt cotton, whereas Maharashtra had minimum profitability. Interestingly, Gujarat had the highest cultivation cost among the surveyed states due to high seed cost (₹1,696 per ha) and high input costs. Farmers of Maharashtra reported American bollworm attack incidents in Bt cotton. Refuge crop was proposed to keep pest susceptibility at bay but not all farmers prefer this practice due to high maintenance cost, less space, pest attack and lack of awareness. Cotton as a crop requires high pesticide usage and thus brings along an adverse impact on the environment. The value of the environment impact quotient for cultivating Bt cotton was lower than that for non-Bt cotton because of reduced pesticide consumption.
The much controversial subject of agri-biotechnology, To Bt or Not to Bt, is covered in the fifth chapter by Sarthak Gaurav and Srijit Mishra. The introduction of Bt technology increased the overall production and yield, but many chapters were still unfolding beneath the advantageous side of Bt. They argue that a clear understanding of risk and uncertainty is required for technology assessment. Reported data and real-time data pertaining to particular regions of Gujarat (Saurashtra and Southern Plains) and Maharashtra (Western Vidarbha) were compared and analysed. From an analysis of NSS data (2002–03), it was found that farmers had to bear high cultivation cost in the selected regions. Farmers faced trouble, and technological complications influenced their decision-making and adjustment process. Apparently, the risk factor of Bt cultivation can be high or low based on the production conditions, but most of the empirical evidence indicates it to be risk-increasing. Bad weather and rainfall conditions make the farmer lose more in the case of Bt cotton than traditional cotton, considering a large proportion of farmers grow cotton in rain-fed areas. Certainly, there is a need to look from this perspective.
In the sixth chapter, Anchal Arora and Sangeeta Bansal elaborate the effect of cotton seed price control on the diffusion of Bt cotton and effects on revenue and profitability of seed providers in India. The chapter revolves around different pricing strategies and statistical analysis of the Bt adoption trend with and without the implications of seed price control. They used the dynamic logistic model to examine the effect of pricing control on the diffusion of Bt cotton during 2002–08. The study indicates that reduced seed prices would result in increased gross revenue for seed providers but only in the short run. Moreover, the introduction of a new and improved variety (Bollgard II) increased the income in the long term irrespective of the high price. The effect of government intervention, that is, price control on profitability of seed providers depends on the production cost of seeds. It is also noticeable that government intervention reduced the illegal spread of Bt seeds. They suggest that policymakers need to refine the existing policy structure by considering the needs of farmers and seed providers. Farmers are the core of the agriculture supply chain; their choice-making can significantly influence them and other components of the chain in the near future. Taking Gujarat as a case, editors analyse the seed and insecticide selection process of cotton growers in the seventh chapter. Based on a survey of farmers and dealers on pesticide usage, frequency and adoption behaviour across small, medium and big growers, it was found that small and big farmers were more prone to Bt adoption than medium farmers. The higher penetration of Bt cotton in Gujarat may be due to the early introduction of unapproved Bt varieties without any safe protocol. Safe adoption practices and awareness are not prominent among farmers and dealers. Farmers rely on time-tested records for choice-making about inputs. The cost of pesticide usage is recorded to be higher due to various reasons, that is, sucking pests’ infestation, pest resistance, mixing of pesticides, mono-cropping and lack of awareness. Different incidences of crop failures are recorded due to pest attacks and faulty pest control practices. There is a need for providing guidelines and training for safe adoption practices to sustain the initial Bt dynamism.
Cotton farming is a labour-intensive process. The declining trend in human labour availability in Punjab is a problem for cotton growers. Taking that into account, Chapter 8 by K. Vatta and R.S. Sidhu examines the existing scenario, causes, demand for labour, input costs and farmers’ perception in cotton production. The primary survey revealed that reasons for labour scarcity are unsatisfactory wage rates, the shift from farm to non-farm occupations, shortage of migrant labourers and unavailability of good-quality chemicals. Moreover, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005) was perceived as an important cause of disinterest among labourers. Raise in current wages by medium and large farmers has increased the cost of cotton cultivation. Thus, mechanization seems like a potential solution to this issue. Also, research in chemicals for weed control is another possibility to bring down the labour demand. However, the proposed alternatives may also have chances of labour displacement and may adversely affect the livelihoods of such households.
The ongoing debate on Bt adoption as an environmentally sustainable option is on board, and Chapter 9 by editors evaluates the success rate of this sustainable technology with the integration of integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated resistance management (IRM). Empirical evidences are illustrated from Maharashtra and Gujarat farms with and without crop protection and management practices such as IPM/IRM. The chapter critically reviews the previous research work in this regard and discusses the modified conceptual framework of Bt technology and environmental performance along with the current status of the IPM and IRM practices among farmers in India. The chapter also compares the Bt adoption scenarios in US and India in line with strict regulations of such practices and crop management systems. The authors highlight the issue of improper refuge practices and mono-cropping as a hindrance to sustainability.
The concluding chapter by the editors summarizes the contents covered in the book in terms of drawbacks and loopholes in the adoption of Bt technology in India. The authors have also elaborated the different areas which require the immediate attention of researchers and policy makers.
Each chapter in this book is a self-contained study module that offers original and detailed discussion into the aspect of Bt technology being investigated.
Consistency in chapter formatting seems to be missing. In the second chapter, the section on seed production, maintenance and distribution was very informative but did not fit with the chapter’s context, that is, the status of cotton development in India: role of public research institutions.
As such, it is a well-edited and well-placed book with high-quality contributions to help achieve its aim of highlighting current issues associated with Bt cotton such as pricing, environmental concerns, biosafety, labour scarcity and farmer’s choice.