Groundwater Practices and Vulnerability at a Pocket of the Northwest Region of Bangladesh: A Study Based on Social and Hydrogeological Factors

Abstract

The combined effects of climate change and anthropogenic factors are causing the depletion of the groundwater level in the Northwest region of Bangladesh, leading to the rise of socio-economic stress among the rural marginalised communities. This research aims to assess the current water practices by identifying the changes in water supply sources and associated socio-economic stress to rural marginalised communities. Both social and hydrogeological factors have been taken into consideration for vulnerability assessment. The social factors are (a) percentage of indigenous households, (b) percentage of poor households, (c) percentage using unhygienic water sources and (d) percentage of households having water scarcity. On the other hand, the hydrogeological factors are (a) depth of topsoil, (b) elevation, (c) stream density, (d) slope of the elevation, (e) land use and (f) soil. The geospatial-based weighted linear combination technique combines all the social and hydrogeological factors. The resultant areas are characterised by five categories: very low to very high vulnerability. According to social and hydrogeological factors, Sapahar, Tilna, Dibar, Sihara and Nirmail unions are in the most vulnerable zone.

Keywords

Depletion of groundwater hydrogeological factors social factors marginalised communities vulnerability Northwest region of Bangladesh

Introduction

Many streams that feed into the Ganges River convert from perennial to seasonal, thus limiting stream water flow in non-monsoon periods. This is due to the combined effect of climate change (delaying and shortening monsoons) and anthropogenic factors (mismanagement of water resources). As a result, the groundwater levels in the Ganges basin are falling sharply (Mukherjee et al., 2018). To determine the effects of anthropogenic factors on groundwater depletion, Siddik et al. (2022) assessed the impact of anthropogenic factors on groundwater recharge potentiality by determining the effects of land use changes on groundwater recharge. Datta et al. (2022) studied the urbanisation effcts on the water quality of semi urban area of Chattogram City. In addition to over-extraction, due to the hydrogeological and climatic factors, the groundwater recharge rate is very low with respect to groundwater abstraction. Priya et al. (2022) estimated the recharge potential rate to be 60 mm/year, which was determined using field observation and numerical modelling.

Several factors affect the recharge potential of groundwater in the Northwest Region of Bangladesh. These include topography, land use and precipitation. Studies have shown that areas with higher elevations and lower levels of land use tend to have higher recharge potential. Additionally, areas with higher precipitation tend to have higher recharge potential (Kabir et al., 2016). Ahmed et al. (2021) developed a spatio-temporal groundwater method for determining vulnerability, considering 18 factors, including six climatic factors. Adham et al. (2010) determined the recharge potential on the whole Barind Tract using the weighted linear combination (WLC) method. Nowreen et al. (2021) developed a potential map for groundwater abstraction using WLC and Water table fluctuation techniques.

Groundwater depletion is a major environmental issue in the Northwest Region of Bangladesh. This region is predominantly agricultural and farmers rely heavily on extracting groundwater. Farmers in this region also struggle to provide adequate water for crop production, which results in reduced yield, ultimately affecting the local farmers. There are some studies on the sustainability of the cropping pattern. Alauddin et al. (2020) recommended alternative wetting and drying irrigation methods to reduce wastage. Dey et al. (2017) recommended completing Boro rice cultivation by November. Institute of Water Modelling (IWM) (2006) suggested crop diversification with less water-consuming crops for the area.

The depletion of groundwater has led to several adverse impacts on the environment and people’s livelihoods. This results in increasing water scarcity for drinking and domestic purposes. The Bangladesh government has recognised the severity of the groundwater depletion issue in the region and has taken several steps to address the problem. For example, the government has recommended rainwater harvesting, surface water irrigation and the introduction of more efficient irrigation systems that use less water. The government promoted more sustainable use of the groundwater, and different organisations like Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA), Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) and NGOs use various schemes to provide water to the locals. Despite the development conducted by other organisations, few studies have been done to assess the current water practices and associated socio-economic stress due to water scarcity.

This study aims to address the current water practices and determine the vulnerable area, which incorporates not only physical factors (e.g., geology, hydrology, climate and distance to wells) but also social (e.g., representation of and near to marginalised community wells) and economic factors (e.g., procuring land, mobilisation of village communities). Village surveys have been conducted to produce social-economic inputs to the maps. High-resolution free satellite imagery has been used to identify key locations based on physical factors.

Study Area and Background

Sapahar & Patnitala Upazilla of Naogaon district is situated in the Northwest Region of Bangladesh. The total area is about 3,626 km² and the population is about 435,522 (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2022 census). Sapahar & Patnitala consists of around 17 unions, which has been provided in Figure 1. A digital elevation model (DEM) of 30 m resolution was collected from SRTM to define the topography of the study area. The elevation of the study area is plain in the eastern part, dissected and undulating in the western part. Elevation of the area varies from 9.00 m PWD to 47.0 m PWD in the study area.

Figure 1.

Data Source: IWM

The Atrai and the Punorbhaba are the major rivers that carry the most drainage water in the study area 01. Because of these and several small rivers, the study area appears well-drained. Also, there is a huge low-lying area (Joboi Beel) in the Aihai Union. The area is not subject to flooding during normal years of rainfall.

Climate

According to the temperature data from the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (Figure 2), the highest temperature occurs in April, about 35.7°C, and the lowest temperature is in January, about 24.5°C. The annual average rainfall is about 1,500 mm, collected by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB). The highest rainfall occurs in July, and the highest temperature occurs from March to May. On the other hand, annual evaporation in the study area is about 897 mm from 1971 to 2018.

Figure 2.

Climate of the Study Area.

Hydro-stratigraphic Cross Section

Litholog data has been collected from relevant sources like DPHE and BWDB to identify the aquifer’s horizontal and vertical layers. Five hydro-stratigraphic cross-sections traversing the study area’s N–S and E–W directions have been generated (Figures 3 and 4). Considering lithological variations and groundwater flow capacity, the study area’s hydro-stratigraphic units have been defined as Clay Top, Upper Aquifer, Clay Middle, Lower Aquifer and Clay Bottom.

Figure 3.

Hydro-stratigraphic Cross Section Line of the Study Area.

Figure 4.

Hydro-stratigraphic Cross Section at Section A-A′(left) and E-E′(right).

The top clay layer ranges from 20 to 80 m in the study area. The upper and lower aquifers are often interconnected, as the clay layer in the middle is disconnected.

Groundwater Depletion

Groundwater level hydrograph from the BWDB groundwater station data from 2000 to 2016 shows a declining trend of groundwater for all the groundwater stations in the study area, indicating the lack of recharge and increasing extraction from the groundwater. The GWL has been depleted up to 11 m in Shiranti and Matindhar within 16 years (0.69 m/year). In most areas, the depletion is about 5–7 m. The spatial distribution of groundwater depletion is provided in Figure 5.

Figure 5.

GWL Depletion.

The seasonal data shows that the lowest peak of the GWL occurs in April–May and the highest peak in September/October. As the abstraction increases in the dry season, the GWL begins to decrease, and it again increases in May due to the rainfall in the monsoon period.

Current Water Sources in the Sapahar and Patnitala

Sapahar and Patnitala of Naogaon district have been facing water scarcity for a long time due to their geological conditions. According to their geological aspects, different governmental organisations have taken different schemes to overcome water woes in Sapahar and Patnitala. However, many poor people, predominantly indigenous, isolated communities, are still deprived of these facilities. The social survey has been done to understand water-related misery and water use. Here, some of the water sources have been described.

Dug Well

BMDA has installed a dug well in areas where tubewell installation is not possible because of the unavailability of the aquifer. The dug well that BMDA has installed has two structures (Figure 6). They are solar panel structures and overhead tank structures. The water is stored in an overhead storage tank with a minimum of 2,000 L capacity. The overhead tank is situated 5,000–5,500 mm above the land surface. A truss structure stabilises the overhead tank platform. The power needed to carry the water into the overhead tank comes from solar energy. In the panel structure, there are 16 solar panels with a voltage of 650 V. The water is carried to the outlet from the overhead storage tank, which has a capacity of 2 L per second. This well is constructed for vegetation and communal use. The Schematic Diagram of the Dug Well is provided in Figure 7.

Figure 6.

Dug Well Installed by BMDA.

Figure 7.

Schematic Diagram of Dug Well.

Sapahar, Tilna in Sapahar Upazilla and Nirmail, Sihara, Dibar in Patnitala Upazilla has the highest number of dug wells. Union-wise distribution is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Union-wise Distribution of Dug Well Installed by BMDA.

SL. No.	Upazilla	Union	Dug Well
1	Sapahar	Sapahar	49
2		Tilna	42
3		Goala	16
4		Siranti	0
5		Aihai	0
6		Patari	0
7	Patnitala	Nirmail	43
8		Dibar	24
9		Patichora	4
10		Patnitala	2
11		Akbarpur	0
12		Matiandor	0
13		Krishnopur	0
14		Amair	0
15		Ghoshnagar	0
16		Nazipur	0
17		Sihara	0

Deep Tubewell

In addition to the dug well, BMDA also installed several deep tubewells. Due to the depletion of GWL, the shallow water tubewells have become obsolete. Therefore, the number of deep tube wells is higher than other water sources. The union-wise distribution of DTW installed by BMDA is given in Table 2.

Table 2.

Union-wise Distribution of DTW Installed by BMDA.

SL. No.	Upazilla	Union	No.
1	Sapahar	Sapahar	55
2		Tilna	50
3		Goala	42
4		Siranti	40
5		Aihai	20
6		Pathari	3
7	Patnitala	Akbarpur	75
8		Matiandor	72
9		Krishnopur	65
10		Patnitala	44
11		Amair	42
12		Ghoshnagar	40
13		Patichora	33
14		Dibar	20
15		Nazipur	17
16		Nirmail	16
17		Sihara	15

Submersible Tubewell

DPHE has also installed submersible pumps for drinking purposes only. These Pumps have been installed under several projects, such as PRWSP (Preferential Rural Water Supply Project), CBWSP (Community-based Water Supply Project) and PEDP4 (Primary Education Development Project) (Figure 8). Table 3 gives the union-wise distribution of submersible pumps.

Figure 8.

Submersible Pump Installed by DPHE.

Table 3.

Union-wise Distribution of Submersible Pump Installed by DPHE.

SL. No.	Upazilla	Union	Total No. of Submersible Pump
1	Sapahar	Sapahar	30
2		Goala	19
3		Tilna	24
4		Aihai	24
5		Patari	11
6		Siranti	21
7	Patnitala	Nazipur	4
8		Patichara	2
9		Amair	3
10		Ghoshnagar	8
11		Patnitala	5
12		Krishnopur	3
13		Akbarpur	7
14		Matindhar	7
15		Dibar	18
16		Sihara	17
17		Nirmail	16

The depth of the submersible pump varies between 150 and 160 ft, depending on site conditions. The pump collects water and stores it in a 3,000 L overhead tank elevated 17 ft from the ground by an RCC column. An auto controller is installed at the pump to stop the pump automatically in case the tank is overloaded. Though it helps reduce water wastage, this process lessens the pump’s longevity, repeatedly turning it on and off.

Khash Pond

Some khash ponds, along with tubewells and dug wells, are sometimes used for domestic water resources. Table 4 shows the distributions of khash ponds by union.

Table 4.

Union-wise Distribution of Khash Pond.

SL. No.	Upazilla	Union	No. of Khash Pond
1	Sapahar	Sapahar	214
2		Tilna	105
3		Shiranti	117
4		Goala	201
5		Aihai	315
6		Patari	64
1	Patnitala	Krishnapur	64
2		Patnitala	52
3		Akbarpur	84
4		Patnitala	61
5		Ghoshnagar	33
6		Amair	43
7		Nazipur	54
8		Patichara	38
9		Dibar	131
10		Sihara	168
11		Nirmail	134

Other drinking sources: DPHE installs several water sources. Due to the depletion of GWL, water cannot be extracted with shallow tubewells, as the groundwater level is decreasing. The depth of a shallow tubewell is 30–50 ft.

DPHE has installed the #2 Tara tubewell, which has been proven to be less convenient as it relies entirely on mechanical energy. Therefore, more energy is needed to draw groundwater. Then DPHE modified the #2 Tara tubewell into #6 Tara tubewell. The conventional deepest tubewell is no longer active. It is a dug well that has a head of a hand tubewell (Table 5).

Table 5.

Union-wise Distribution of other Drinking Source Installed by DPHE.

SL. No.	Upazilla	Union	Shallow Tubewell	#6 Tara Tubewell	#2 Tara Tubewell	Deep Tara Tubewell	Conventional Deep-set Tubewell	Ring Well with Tara Pump
1	Sapahar	Sapahar	0	30	0	0	0	9
2		Goala	0	130	0	0	0	4
3		Tilna	5	50	0	0	0	8
4		Aihai	0	80	0	0	0	0
5		Patari	20	90	0	0	0	0
6		Siranti	0	95	0	0	0	5
1	Patnitala	Nazipur	216	95	0	0	2	0
2		Patichara	127	113	0	0	0	0
3		Amair	157	78	0	0	0	0
4		Ghoshnagar	159	101	0	0	0	0
5		Patnitala	105	204	10	0	0	0
6		Krishnopur	143	125	9	0	0	0
7		Akbarpur	87	182	14	0	0	0
8		Matindhar	87	159	10	0	0	0
9		Dibar	34	252	15	0	0	16
10		Sihara	35	184	12	0	1	22
11		Nirmail	6	183	17	0	1	23

Socio-economic Stress Due to Poor Groundwater Quality and Quantity

Despite the installation of several water resources by different government organisations and NGOs, the rural people in some regions are still affected. The depletion of GWL and water scarcity has caused severe implications for the local populations, especially among the rural communities, including indigenous, isolated people. Water access is limited to a nearby school and wealthy neighbouring families due to the absence of privatised water sources. Water collection requires up to 2 hours, often involving children, ultimately impeding their education.

Furthermore, livestock are negatively impacted by the lack of water in the dry seasons, reducing rural communities’ economic benefits. The nature of cultivation has altered as well, with mango gardening replacing paddy and vegetable cultivation and grasslands. Mango gardening not only requires less labour but also generates higher profits. The landowners get an annual lease of at least 25,000 Taka, two to three times more profitable than before. This shift in cultivation becomes beneficial for landowners even though marginalised, indigenous and poor people are economically affected. In the dry season, insufficient water causes dehydration in infants and young children susceptible to diseases.

Vulnerability Assessment

Several social parameters and hydrogeological factors have been considered to assess the study area’s vulnerability. The social indicators collected from the social survey are described below.

Vulnerability According to the Social Indicators

The focus area of the study is vulnerable communities. The most vulnerable populations affected by the falling groundwater table are the marginalised (economically weak, tribal and isolated communities) and women (as they are entrusted to secure drinking water for households)—the approach to understanding this vulnerability involves collecting and analysing primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected by field survey; secondary data were obtained from BBS Census Data, 2011, and local union offices. The research methodology involves key informant interviews with local government officials, Union Chairmen, and Members to identify vulnerable villages. The severity of water scarcity is categorised into five levels ranging from very low to very high. Four focus group discussions were conducted in the selected vulnerable villages, and the GPS coordinates of the consultation locations were recorded for geospatial analysis.

The vulnerability assessment was based on four indicators, including the percentage of poor households (PH), the percentage of indigenous households (IH), the percentage of villages with scarcity impact, and the percentage of households using unhygienic water sources (UWH). The resulting data were subjected to geographic information system (GIS) processing. The methodology is provided in Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Maps Showing. (a) Indigenous Household, (b) Poor Households, (c) Households Using Unhygienic Water Sources and (d) Percentage of Households with High Water Scarcity.

Social Indicators

Percentage of IH

The percentage of IH was determined by using the total number of households of marginal people and divided by the total number of households of that union. Nirmail and Shihara unions exhibited the highest percentage of IH, ranging from 12% to 17%. Meanwhile, Nazipur, Akbarpur and Krishnapur unions have 10%–12% IH. However, Pathari, Aihai, Shiranti, Tilna and Patichara unions have the lowest percentage of IH, ranging from 0% to 4%. In the remaining unions, the rate fluctuates from 6% to 10%.

Percentage of PH

The percentage of PH was determined by using the total number of households of marginal people and divided by the total number of households in that union. The union of Shiranti, Nirmail and Shihara has the highest percentage of PH, ranging from 47% to 48%. By contrast, Goala and Ghoshnagar unions have 34%–35% of PH, the lowest percentage among these unions. For the rest of the unions, the rate fluctuates from 38% to 47%.

Percentage of Households Using UWH

UWHs were those from which local people collect water except for tube wells and treated water. The percentage of UWH for each Sapahar and Patnitala Upazila union was collected from Bangladesh Population and Housing Census 2011 community report Zila: Naogaon, August 2014, (BBS). Sapahar and Shihara unions have the highest percentage of households using UWH, ranging from 55% to 65%. Meanwhile, Dibar, Tilna and Nirmail unions have 30%–50% of 1%–15% of households using UWH, the second highest percentage among these unions.

Percentage of Villages with High Water Scarcity Impact (WSH)

The percentage of households with high water scarcity was collected from the Union Parishad. Figure 10 shows the number of villages, the number of households and the percentage of villages with high WSH under each union. Sapahar, Dibar and Tilna unions have the highest percentage of villages with high WSH, ranging from 50% to 86%.

Identification of Vulnerable Area

All social indicators have been given equal weight to calculate the study area’s vulnerability. Figure 11 shows the vulnerability analyses. Dibar, Sapahar and Shihara unions are in the very highly vulnerable category. Meanwhile, Tilna and Nirmail unions are in the highly vulnerable category.

Figure 10.

Maps Showing. (a) Indigenous Household, (b) Poor Households, (c) Households Using Unhygienic Water Sources and (d) Percentage of Households with High Water Scarcity.

Figure 11.

Vulnerability Maps According to the Social Factors.

Vulnerability Methodology According to the Hydrogeological Factors

This study area has been facing water scarcity because of the unavailability of groundwater resources and lack of recharge. For that purpose, recharge potentiality in the area has been determined. The groundwater recharge potentiality in Sapahar and Patnitala has been studied using the WLC method based on the Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing technique. In Sapahar and Patnitala, less favourable infiltration capacity of topsoil does not allow infiltration to the study area. As a result, a major portion of rainfall has become overland flow. That is why minimal recharge occurs in the study area. To determine the groundwater potential zone of the current study area, each of the seven different thematic layers (clay layer, elevation, stream density, slope, land use and soil map) is integrated by applying the weighted overlay method of ArcGIS (Figure 12). All thematic maps have different kinds of impacts on groundwater recharge. These layers are classified into five groups depending on their effects on groundwater recharge. Thus, the layers were classified into five groups based on their impacts on groundwater recharge.

Figure 12.

Maps Showing. (a) Depth of Clay Layer, (b) Elevation, (c) Drainage Density, (d) Slope, (e) Land Use and (f) Soil Type.

The groundwater potentiality (GP) is calculated as follows:

GP = 0.25 × AD + 0.20 × Elv. + 0.15 × DD + 0.15 × S + 0.10 × LU + 0.15 × So

AD = Aquifer depth; Elv = elevation; SD = drainage density; S = slope; LU = land use; So = soil type.

Hydrogeological Factors

Aquifer Depth

Aquifer depth has been processed from the lithology data collected from different secondary sources. The Aquifer Depth is in the range of 3–48 m. The highest depth is found on the border of Sapahar and Patnitala Upazilla. On the other hand, the eastern part of the study area has depths ranging from 3 to 20 m, which is the lowest in the study area. The aquifer depth is a crucial factor in determining the GP of an area, with lower depths indicating a higher potential for groundwater availability. To account for this contribution to GP, a weighted factor of 25% was assigned in the analysis. The assigned weights of the factors were determined using the Konkul et al. (2014) method.

Elevation

Areas with higher elevations contribute less to groundwater recharge. Shiranti, Nirmail, Shihara and Goala have higher elevations ranging from 34 to 47 m PWD. On the other hand, the eastern side of the study area, such as Nazipur, Amair and Goshainagar, has elevations of 14–20 m. The weightage of the elevation is considered as 20%.

Drainage Density (Dd)

Stream density is the length of all channels within the basin divided by the area of the basin. The drainage map of the area is prepared from DEM. The Dd values range from 0.00 to 2.5 km/km². The weighted factor of Dd is considered 15%.

Slope

The higher slope value creates runoff, thus causing less infiltration of rainwater through surface soil to recharge the aquifer. The recharge phenomenon to groundwater occurs in flat and gentle slope areas, where a print of steep slope facilitates the rapid flow of runoff, resulting in comparatively less infiltration. A major part of the study falls under flat to gentle slope. According to the contribution of GP, 15% is the weighted factor considered for slope.

Land Use

A land use map has been collected from the globe cover. Its resolution is 0.5°. A significant portion of the study area is cropland, and this parameter is weighted at 10%.

Soil Map

The Soil Resource Development Institute has collected a soil map. According to the map, three soil types are classified in the study area: acid-heavy clays, grey terrace soils and grey floodplain soils. Acid-heavy clays play an inferior role in the groundwater recharge potential, while grey terrace soils with silt over the clay sublayer play a moderate role. Grey Floodplain Soils _ Silt, Loam and clay are considered intermediate.

Identification of Groundwater Recharge Potential Zone

The resultant map in Figure 13 shows that 0.3% of the area is very poor, 22.6% is poor, 53.1% is moderate and 24% of the total area has good groundwater recharge potential. Sapahar, Tilna, Goala and Siranti Union in Sapahar Upazilla have poor recharge potential. Nirmail, Sihara and Dibar Union in Patnitala Upazilla have poor recharge potential. In Sapahar, Pathari and Aihai Union have good potential recharge, and in Patnitala, the remaining eight unions have moderate to good recharge.

Figure 13.

Potential Recharge Map.

Combined Vulnerability

The vulnerable area is determined by incorporating all the social and technical parameters in this study area. The first scenario of the social vulnerability map, where all the parameters have been considered, has been combined with a recharge potential map with equal weightage.

The map in Figure 14 shows that Sapahar, Dibar, Nirmail and Shihara unions are in ‘high vulnerable’, and Shiranti, Goala and Matindhar unions are in the moderate vulnerable category.

Figure 14.

Vulnerable Area of Sapahar and Patnitala.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on vulnerability analysis, it can be concluded that with equal weightage on the four indicators, the most vulnerable unions are Sapahar, Dibar and Shihara, and with equal weightage without the water scarcity indicator, the ranks change and the most vulnerable unions are: Shihara, Sapahar, Tilna. On the contrary, taking only indigenous and PH indicators, the most vulnerable unions are Shihara, Nirmail and Patnitala.

Over time, various types of assistance have come to the vulnerable areas of different Upazilas. Yet, most of the time, the indigenous, poor, isolated community was deprived of these facilities due to the influx of wealthy family-centred support. However, when they got facilities such as wells or submersible pumps, the system became inactive due to mismanagement or poor maintenance. Therefore, the survey participants have highlighted a direct intervention of the government to alleviate their suffering. Existing public and private ponds are recommended to be re-excavated. Digging Khas ponds can work as recharge ponds and reservoirs for meeting household and domestic needs. These will reduce the pressure of groundwater, which will help regain the groundwater table in that area. On the other hand, installing a submersible pump is a viable solution without adequate land. Alternatively, dug wells can be used where submersible pumps are unsuitable without an aquifer. However, to ensure the proper maintenance of these systems, a committee consisting of local people should be established. Local government organisations and NGOs can provide training for these committees.

Footnotes

Acknowledgement

The authors thank the Institute of Water Modelling (IWM) and IIT Bombay for conducting the project’s outcome. The authors express their gratitude to them.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: IITB funded the project through DUPC and UN-IHE, Netherlands.

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