Abstract
Ensuring sufficient access to clean and safe energy is a pre-requisite for enhancing the quality of human life. However, in some regions, such as Pitai village in Nusa Tenggara Timur, East Indonesia, people face challenges in accessing safe and clean energy, leading to the problem of energy poverty. Despite the government’s introduction of LPG in 2007, many households in Pitai continue to rely on firewood for cooking fuel. This article aims to investigate why most rural households in Pitai, Kupang and Nusa Tenggara Timur are still trapped in using dirty fuels like firewood, and how they perceived and accepted LPG after the national transition programme. To achieve this, a micro-ethnography study was conducted in Pitai village. The study’s results reveal that most of the community still prefers using firewood, which is more comfortable than LPG. Additionally, an inadequate supply of LPG, coupled with the abandonment of the firewood supply, has led to a lack of interest in adopting LPG. Consequently, the price of LPG remains higher than that of firewood, further discouraging its adoption. Addressing the issue of energy poverty in Pitai requires a comprehensive approach by the government involving providing adequate LPG supply and initiatives to raise awareness and change perceptions about LPG usage. By overcoming these challenges, the community can transition towards cleaner and safer energy sources, improving their overall quality of life. On the other hand, the government must address the accessibility and affordability of the LPG supply chain to inland areas, taking into account the challenges posed by the archipelagic nature of the country.
Introduction
Most scholars and leaders have concluded that energy is a prominent and vital component of human existence (Clancy et al., 2003; Lambrou & Piana, 2006). Access to reliable and safe energy is crucial for social and economic development (Chakravarty & Tavoni, 2013; CIFOR, 2010; Nussbaumer et al., 2012). However, many individuals continue to suffer from energy poverty, which hinders their ability to afford adequate energy for heating or cooling options (Fuller & McCauley, 2016). Furthermore, they face challenges in accessing enough clean, modern energy sources (Sumiya, 2016). Approximately 2.4 billion people, constituting one-third of the global population, rely on firewood for cooking and boiling water (FAO, 2016a). In developed countries, firewood is predominantly used by rural households, while in developing nations, it is utilised by both urban and rural households (CIFOR, 2010). Additionally, rural communities in developing countries are more likely to depend on firewood than urban populations (Stabridis & van Gameren, 2018). This significant issue has garnered international attention, prompting it to be included as one of the goals in the United Nations-determined Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to ensure access to sufficient, reliable, clean and modern energy for all worldwide society by 2030 (Tàbara et al., 2020).
Scholars from both developed and developing countries acknowledge that wood fuel has the potential to be a source of renewable energy (CIFOR, 2010). However, a consensus among scholars indicates that heavy reliance on firewood harms the environment and human health (FAO, 2016b). It is widely believed that the use of firewood is closely linked to deforestation (Baland et al., 2010; Mckay et al., 2014) and contributes to approximately 7% of global emissions (FAO, 2016a). The combustion of firewood for cooking leads to the creation of indoor air pollution (IAP), which has adverse effects on human health (Han & Wu, 2018), particularly respiratory diseases. Consequently, people suffering from respiratory problems experience reduced participation in the labour force (Stabridis & van Gameren, 2018).
Indonesia is among the Asian countries facing energy poverty challenges (Khanna et al., 2019). Gratefully, the introduction of LPG in 2007 has been a significant step forward. This initiative has successfully encouraged people who were using kerosene and firewood to switch to LPG (Andadari et al., 2014). As of 2019, LPG access in Indonesia had reached an impressive 79.90% (BPS, 2020a), contributing to a notable shift in cooking fuel usage from kerosene and firewood to LPG (Astuti et al., 2019).
However, it is important to note that not all areas in Indonesia had equal access to LPG. The inequality of opportunities between western and eastern regions in Indonesia contributes to a lack of education in rural areas, consequently affecting environmental awareness. In Nusa Tenggara Timur, LPG consumption remained relatively low compared to other regions. In 2019, only 1.2% of households in Nusa Tenggara Timur used LPG for cooking (BPS, 2020b). Additionally, about 70.94% of households in this region continued to rely on firewood, significantly higher than the national average of 14.04% for firewood users in Indonesia (BPS, 2020b). Consequently, Nusa Tenggara Timur has become the area with the highest number of firewood users in Indonesia, and the transition to LPG has been slow despite its massive introduction in 2007.
The underdeveloped supply chains in eastern Indonesia, attributed to the islands’ remoteness, present a significant obstacle as they result in costly infrastructure investment. Moreover, the relatively low awareness of LPG aggravates the issue, contributing to its increased expense (Dartanto et al., 2020). Consequently, it has become imperative for the Indonesian government to prioritise enhancing the accessibility of the energy transition.
Given the reasons mentioned earlier, this study aims to address two primary research questions. First, it seeks to understand why people in Pitai village have continued to rely on firewood for their energy needs. Second, it aims to explore how these individuals perceive and accept modern energy sources, such as electricity and LPG, in an energy transition context driven by government policy. By investigating these research questions, this study intends to shed light on important aspects of energy usage in the region. The findings may offer valuable insights that contribute to providing cleaner energy solutions for households, reducing energy poverty and promoting energy justice in Indonesia. Ultimately, the study outcome can pave the way for more effective policies and interventions to accelerate the transition towards sustainable and accessible energy options, benefiting the environment and the well-being of local communities.
Firewood Use in Rural Areas
Firewood Use and Its Impact on the Environment and Health
Scholars have observed that the combustion of firewood in traditional stoves results in IAP creation, which poses several health risks. This combustion releases a range of air pollutants, including total suspended particles (TSPs), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) (Gabisa & Gheewala, 2019; Reyes et al., 2015). The emissions from firewood burning also include additional hazardous substances such as ethylene (C2H4), volatile organic compound (VOC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), PM10, high methane (NH4), CO and nitrous oxide (N2O) (Reyes et al., 2015). Of these pollutants, CO contributes to both short-term and long-term health effects. Long-term exposure to TSP, SO2 and NOx is associated with chronic health effects, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease and other respiratory-related illnesses (Ballard-Tremeer & Jawurek, 1996).
Researchers have extensively studied the adverse health effects of combustion from dirty fuels, particularly IAP. It has been found that IAP is responsible for approximately 1.6 million deaths annually (Stabridis & van Gameren, 2018). Certain groups, such as women, young children, older individuals and those suffering from pre-existing diseases, are particularly vulnerable to the adverse health impacts of exposure to firewood combustion in the household (Stabridis & van Gameren, 2018). Scholars have established a clear correlation between firewood combustion and respiratory illness. Rinne et al. (2006) conducted a study that revealed that exposure to biomass combustion, such as firewood, reduced pulmonary function in children living in homes that used biomass for cooking compared to those using cleaner fuels like LPG. Chronic bronchitis, asthma and acute respiratory infections have been identified in households that rely on firewood for cooking (Pant, 2008). McKay et al. (2014) conducted a study in Indonesia, demonstrating that individuals who cooked with firewood had 11.2% lower lung capacity than those using cleaner cooking fuels. Silwal and McKay (2015) further supported this finding, showing that people who cooked with firewood had lower lung capacity than those who used cleaner fuel.
Some scholars proposed using improved cookstoves as a potential solution to reduce IAP from firewood combustion. Dutta et al. (2007) found that improved cookstoves could reduce around 20%–49% of CO and PM2.5 emissions. Sharma and Jain (2019) further demonstrated the benefits of improved cookstoves, reporting a reduction of about 21%–62% in PM10, 20%–80% in PM2.5, 24%–87% in PM1 and 19%–93% in CO emissions. Armendáriz-Arnez et al. (2010) showed a 21% reduction in TSP after using an improved cookstove. Some scholars have also explored alternative fuels like pellets to reduce firewood emissions (Jagger & Das, 2018). Nepal et al. (2011) found that while improved cookstoves may reduce emissions, they could increase firewood demand compared to open-fire stoves. Additionally, Alnes et al. (2014) observed that the concentration of CO in the indoor environment was more closely related to the type of fuel used than the specific stove technology employed.
The impact of firewood consumption on deforestation has been a long-standing debate among scholars. While Reyes et al. (2015) and others have argued the potential influence of firewood consumption on deforestation, there is growing evidence that forest exploitation for firewood contributes to deforestation (Odihi, 2003; Subedi et al., 2014). Deforestation, in turn, leads to various eco-environmental problems, including soil erosion, desertification, human diseases and loss of time for education and recreation (Liu et al., 2008). Despite the evidence supporting the link between firewood consumption and deforestation, some scholars have argued that the role of firewood in deforestation is minimal (Subedi et al., 2014) or lacks significant impact (Lee et al., 2015).
Based on the reviews above, considering its negative impact on human health and the environment, the utilisation of firewood, primarily as a source of cooking fuel, should be diminished.
Energy Use in Rural Area
Generally, energy consumption in rural households tends to be lower than in urban households (Wang, 2014). However, in many developing countries, there is a notable reliance on firewood and biomass as the primary energy sources, even in rural areas. This trend is observed across different income levels, with firewood commonly used by low-, middle- and high-income households. For instance, in Bangladesh, approximately 92% of rural households use biomass and 52% rely on firewood as their primary energy source (Miah et al., 2010). Similarly, in India, as of 2011, 77% of rural households used biomass for their energy needs (Ravindra et al., 2019). However, there was a slight decline by 2010, with 72.6% of users utilising biomass and 18% relying on firewood (Bhattacharya, 2015).
Transitioning from traditional cooking fuels to more advanced cooking technologies or cleaner fuels can be challenging, particularly in rural households. Studies have shown that households relying on conventional cooking fuels, such as firewood and biomass, have less intention to replace them with induction cooking stoves compared to those already using LPG as their cooking fuel (Banerjee et al., 2016). In Bangladesh, the adoption of cleaner fuels has been limited, with only 2% of rural households having switched to cleaner options (Ravindra et al., 2019). This low adoption rate indicates that replacing traditional energy with advanced cooking technology or cleaner fuels faces various barriers and constraints.
However, some households use multiple sources of energy, such as LPG and firewood (Hartono et al., 2020). They may employ an LPG stove for frying foods while opting for a firewood stove to boil water and cook rice. This practice is more prevalent in rural areas, particularly since the introduction of modern fuels. In such instances, individuals using modern energy sources in their homes are not entirely free from using dirty fuels, such as firewood.
The Determinant of Firewood Use
Energy ladder theory is the most commonly accepted theory for understanding energy consumption patterns. This theory suggests that higher-income households adopt more modern fuel sources (Hosier & Dowd, 1987; Reddy et al., 2000; van der Horst & Hovorka, 2008). In Indonesia, as of 2018, 44% of rural households that relied on firewood for cooking were low-income (Hartono et al., 2020). However, there is substantial evidence to suggest that higher-income households continue to use traditional energy sources, such as firewood, instead of adopting more modern alternatives (Ballard-Tremeer & Jawurek, 1996; Mirza & Szirmai, 2010; Treiber, 2013).
The absence of modern energy sources, such as LPG, forces people to resort to various fuels, with firewood being the primary choice (Hartono et al., 2020). The availability of firewood supply is a crucial factor influencing this choice (Astuti et al., 2019). Firewood is often collected freely from many sources. The surplus firewood in rural areas can meet the demand from urban households (Cline-Cole et al., 1988). However, the distance to the market, from rural to urban areas, plays a pivotal role in determining the preference for firewood as a fuel (Silwal & McKay, 2015), which might lead to reduced usage. Moreover, firewood prices become expensive in some instances due to high market demand coupled with limited supply, prompting more people to rely on firewood over other fuels.
Rural areas often lack modern energy infrastructure, resulting in a scarcity of modern energy supplies. Consequently, many people in these areas cannot access or afford such energy sources, leading them to use any available fuel, such as firewood, which tends to have a high supply. The reliability of fuel supply becomes a crucial factor influencing the adoption of different energy sources (Kowsari & Zerriffi, 2011).
Due to limited supply, the prices of modern energy have increased, creating barriers to its widespread use (Jan et al., 2012). This situation has even prompted people to switch to using firewood (Baiyegunhi & Hassan, 2014) due to its lower cost than modern energy. Firewood, being available for free, has become a preferred option for many (Hosier & Kipondya, 1993), often collected from their gardens or fallen tree branches (Miah et al., 2010). Consequently, most firewood users opt to collect firewood rather than purchase it.
Education is pivotal in enhancing people’s knowledge, consequently improving their household economic situation. Therefore, Miah et al. (2011) argue that education significantly influences fuel use. Moreover, education fosters awareness about the health effects of traditional energy, often leading to a greater understanding of its impact on health. However, the lack of awareness regarding the long-term health effects of conventional fuel usage (Howells et al., 2010) has contributed to the persistence of traditional fuel adoption in rural households, with firewood being used without considering the health effects and risks associated with its combustion.
The cooking frequency significantly influences the type of fuel households use (Miah et al., 2011). The cooking methods employed, the types of food prepared and the quantity cooked all play a role in determining fuel consumption. Consequently, cultural tradition also considerably impacts fuel choices (Ravindra et al., 2019; Treiber et al., 2015).
Methodology and Data
The study was conducted in Pitai, a village in the Sub-District of Sulamu, District of Kupang, Province of Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia. Pitai village is situated at 9.99° south latitude and 123° east longitude. It is located 9 km from Sulamu and 37 km from Kupang. The village sits 500 m above sea level, and its terrain mainly consists of hillsides. Pitai covers an area of 30.44 km2, which accounts for 11.29% of the total area of the Sulamu Sub-District. The location of Pitai village is depicted in Figure 1.
The Location of Pitai Village.
In 2019, the population of Pitai was 966, with a total of 233 households and an average household size of four people (BPS Kabupaten Kupang, 2019). As per the data from BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2020a), most villagers were engaged in farming, including fishing and breeding, accounting for approximately 36.54% of the population. Pitai village had two nursery schools, one primary and one secondary school. Around 10% of the population was reported to be illiterate, while approximately 42.2% and 46.8% had completed primary school and junior high school, respectively (Prasetiyawan, 2020). Regarding healthcare facilities, there was only one health centre in the village, staffed with five health workers but without a physician. Around 72.26% of the population also owned mobile phones, and this village had a strong internet signal. However, it is worth noting that approximately 69.7% of the roads in Pitai were gravel roads (see Figure 2).
Housing and Road in Pitai Village.
This study investigates why Pitai society uses firewood for cooking, while most households in Indonesia use LPG. Ethnography is chosen for this study as it is highly effective in revealing intricate details of social phenomena that may not be easily captured through interviews alone (Murto et al., 2020). Full-scale ethnography typically requires extended periods in the study location by the investigator (Bryman, 2012). However, conducting a full-scale ethnography was not feasible due to the constraints of the fieldwork being part of the community engagement programme called Kuliah Kerja Nyata (KKN) Nusantara. Instead, a micro-ethnography study was conducted to meticulously gather insights into the energy usage behaviour of the Pitai Village community.
In this study, data collection was primarily gathered through daily observation of the society’s cooking behaviour, engaging in conversations with the community members and actively listening to their discussions. Ethnography is mainly an observational approach, where the investigator spends a specific period conducting fieldwork to gain an in-depth understanding of the culture and social dynamics (Silverman, 2010). However, ethnography also allows investigators to ask questions and engage in narratives with the participants to gather additional insights (Jonker & Pennink, 2010). This combination of observation and interactive inquiry helped uncover valuable information about the energy usage behaviour of the Pitai Village society.
In this study, the investigators closely observed the household’s cooking activities to understand their behaviour. In certain instances, to enhance participant acceptance and gather more information, the investigators actively engaged in cooking activities alongside the participants. Some of these activities were documented through photographs, as shown in Figure 3. Alongside the photos, detailed observations of human behaviour during cooking and conversations with households were recorded in notes and on the recording devices.
(a) Cooking Preparation Activity with the Native, (b) Cooking Activity and (c) Firewood Stove.
During conversations, the investigators conducted interviews by asking pertinent questions to elicit narratives, which is valuable for collecting information from participants (Hammersley, 2006). Additionally, structured interviews were conducted with select participants representing the broader village community.
The observations focused on the daily lives of participants, particularly their cooking activities. This encompassed their behaviours in gathering fuel for cooking, the types of food they consumed, the timing of fuel changes and their electricity usage pattern. The observations also covered activities supporting cooking, such as their meal and drink routines. Throughout the observation process, the observers conversed with and interviewed the participants. For those with limited time for in-depth conversations, some questions from a questionnaire were used to gather additional information. This comprehensive approach allowed for thoroughly examining participants’ cooking habits and energy usage behaviour in their daily lives.
Before engaging in conversation, the participants were asked for their consent to record the discussion using electronic recorders or note-taking. To ensure the confidentiality of all narratives, anonymity was carefully considered and respected throughout the study. The study participants consisted of residents of Pitai who had either been born in the village or lived there for over 10 years. Approximately 25 participants willingly agreed to engage in conversations with the observers. Among these participants, five were the community leaders chosen to represent the community in this study.
Results and Findings
In 2018, the electrification rate in Nusa Tenggara Timur was reported to be 90.82% (BPS, 2019a). Although access to electricity in Pitai began in the 1980s, most residents continued to rely on lanterns, torches and kerosene-fuelled lighting for illumination instead of electric lighting until 2018. According to data from BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2019), nearly all Pitai residents started using electricity in 2018. Additionally, BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2020b) recorded 131,022 households using electricity in the Kupang district, with an average electricity consumption of 1,244.44 kWh. Based on this data, it can be assumed that Pitai households consumed similar amounts of electricity.
Pitai households had good access to modern energy for lighting purposes. In addition to lighting, electricity was used for entertainment, such as watching television and charging mobile phones. The availability of electricity allowed them to access television for information and entertainment. With the widespread use of mobile phones, electricity was essential for charging the phone batteries, enabling faster communication and modern technology. However, despite having access to electricity, most Pitai households continued to rely on firewood for cooking. Although kerosene was available in Pitai, the data from BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2020a) showed that seven villages in Sulamu Subdistrict, including Pitai, used more firewood than kerosene. Table 1 summarises firewood consumption in Pitai from 2005 to 2019. While the number of households using electric lighting in Pitai significantly increased in 2019 compared to 2018, with more than 90% of households using electricity for lighting, most still preferred firewood for cooking.
Lighting and Firewood Use from 2005 to 2019.
Firewood Use in Pitai: Cultural or Institutional?
According to BPS (2019b) data, 26.9% of households used kerosene in the Province of Nusa Tenggara Timur, while only 0.52% and 1.6% used electricity and LPG for cooking, respectively. Based on the observation in Pitai, the most modern fuel used by the Pitai society was kerosene, and no one used LPG for cooking. However, firewood remained the most common cooking fuel among households, indicating that most people in Pitai rely on traditional fuel for their cooking needs.
Cooking using a traditional stove fuelled by firewood has been a common practice among ancestors worldwide, and this was also true in Pitai. Most people in Pitai were accustomed to using open-fire stoves for cooking. During the conversation with native Pitai individuals, several reasons were identified for why firewood remained the preferred fuel choice:
Firstly, cooking with firewood stove has been a deeply ingrained part of our culture, passed down through generations. Our ancestors did it this way, and so do we. Secondly, while some of us have access to electricity, the availability of LPG is very limited in our area. Therefore, many households cannot use firewood. (Narratives, 40 years old)
Another narrative of Pitai stated, ‘Searching for firewood in the forest has been a common practice for society in Pitai, mainly because of the abundant wood source available. Gathering firewood from the forest has been a tradition for generations’ (Native Pitai, 36).
Approximately 75% of the participants in this study emphasised that the ease of obtaining firewood is the primary factor influencing its use for cooking. The abundant availability of firewood from nearby forests and their gardens makes it readily accessible. According to data from BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2020a), Pitai possessed a total forest area of 783 hectares, with 97% designated protected forest. The forest area constituted 25.7% of the village’s total land area. Despite being smaller than other villages in Sulamu sub-district, most households in Pitai relied on firewood for cooking. However, the production of firewood from the forest was relatively small. In 2019, Pitai’s forest produced only 180 m3 of firewood, whereas the total wood production from the forest was significantly higher, reaching 673 thousand m3, according to BPS Kabupaten Kupang (2020a).
All the narratives also unanimously emphasised that free access to firewood was the key to using it for cooking. They collected firewood not only from nearby forest areas but also from their garden or farmyard. This practice significantly reduced their cooking expenses, allowing them to allocate the money they saved for essential needs such as food, education or clothing.
In 2007, the government of Indonesia introduced LPG to society to promote modern energy usage (Astuti et al., 2019). However, for some reason, most Pitai residents did not show much interest in using LPG. Some conversations with the Pitai residents shed light on their perspectives. One participant stated,
In this modern era, electricity is available in most places here. However, there are still some areas where electricity is not accessible. While few people use LPG for cooking, its usage is quite limited. Additionally, we face difficulties in finding kerosene. On the other hand, we are fortunate to have an abundant source of firewood, which serves as a ready fuel option. (Narrative, 36 years old)
Another participant confidently expressed, ‘We don’t need LPG. Our forest provides an abundant source of firewood, which is free, whereas LPG is costly. So, none of the people here need LPG’ (Narrative, 66 years old).
From the narrative’s conversation, four main reasons emerged why most Pitai residents preferred using firewood over LPG. The first reason is the lack of knowledge about LPG usage. Since many Pitai residents did not know that LPG cylinders and stoves were unfamiliar with their usage, knowledge about LPG could be disseminated through various channels such as books, television, radio or social media. Nowadays, social media, which is accessible through mobile phones, plays a crucial role in delivering information and knowledge to society. Fortunately, most Pitai residents had mobile phones (BPS Kabupaten Kupang, 2020a), granting them reasonable access to information. However, the information about LPG in Pitai mainly came from television. Although television shared positive and negative news about the LPG programme, the negative news, such as LPG cylinder blasts in some areas, created fear and reluctance in society towards using LPG. This fear and apprehension constitute the second reason LPG was not preferred by the society in Pitai compared to firewood.
The third reason for the lack of acceptability of LPG in Pitai was the rarity of its supply, which directly affected its market price. Due to the limited availability of LPG in Pitai, its price has become higher. In contrast, firewood is easily and freely accessible in the residents’ gardens and the nearby forest. This stark contrast in availability and cost influenced society’s perception that LPG use was more expensive than firewood, discouraging them from adopting it. The high cost associated with using LPG constitutes the fourth reason why Pitai residents were hesitant to embrace LPG. The conceptual determinant behind the prevalent use of firewood by most people in Pitai is illustrated in Figure 4.
The Reason Society Uses More Firewood than LPG.
The Acceptance of LPG Among the Pitai Society
Firewood use for cooking was dominant in Pitai, despite 77.6% of Indonesian households using LPG for cooking (BPS, 2019a). According to BPS (2020b), approximately 1.2% of households in Nusa Tenggara Timur used LPG, while 70.94% of households continued to rely on firewood.
In the 1980s, electricity was introduced in Pitai, and households had access to television. However, a few narratives were unaware of the news or advertisements about the LPG programme on television. Those who were aware viewed the LPG programme positively, recognising its faster and easier cooking benefits. Unfortunately, LPG was unavailable in Pitai, leading them to perceive it as only intended for urban households. Additionally, some narratives mentioned financial constraints as a barrier to purchasing LPG. Despite acknowledging the advantages of LPG, some individuals still prefer to use firewood for cooking.
Television news and advertising about LPG programmes significantly influenced people’s perceptions. The following conversations were depicted from the narratives during the study:
I would still choose to use firewood even if the government introduced LPG. Firewood is more affordable, and I always consider the cost when making decisions, including the choice of cooking fuel. We have an abundance of firewood readily available for free, which helps us save money. Therefore, we did not feel the need for LPG at all. If LPG is not available here because it does not offer significant benefits, then the people in Pitai would not use it. They adopt something based on its economic advantages. If LPG provides substantial benefits, they might consider using it. Similarly, if kerosene offered certain benefits, they would use kerosene. (Narrative, 66 years old) Some people wanted to use LPG, but they considered its cost. Moreover, the supply of LPG is limited, making it challenging to find. The LPG market is not available here. Meanwhile, our society is still rooted in our traditional cooking culture, where we predominantly use firewood. We have an abundant supply of firewood. If, in the future, the supply of firewood becomes scarce, society will be willing to explore other fuel options that offer benefits, such as kerosene-fuelled stoves or LPG-fuelled stoves. However, if the price of LPF rose significantly, they would revert to using firewood. (Narrative, 40 years old) We are interested in using LPG because it helps us cook easier and faster. We must go to the forest to find firewood when we cook on a firewood stove. However, with an LPG stove, we stay home, plug in the LPG cylinder, and turn on the stove. It is that easy. (Narrative, 36 years old)
The news about the accident caused by LPG explosions during the early introduction of LPG in Jawa Island created a negative image in society, leading people to lose interest in using LPG. Based on the conversation with narratives, there were three categories of people in terms of their interest in using LPG: those who were not interested, those who were undecided and those who were interested. These categories are presented in Figure 5.
The Category of Intention to Adopt LPG.
People who believed that firewood supply in Pitai would always be abundant were unlikely to consider adopting LPG. They had plentiful cooking fuel sources without spending a single cent. However, the limited supply and expensive price of LPG in Pitai made people hesitant to adopt it. Some members of the Pitai society were indecisive about using LPG. They recognised that LPG could help them cook faster and easier, but concern about availability, price, and the risk of accidents influenced their willingness to adopt it. On the other hand, some Pitai residents had a positive outlook on LPG, which motivated them to consider adopting it despite its scarcity in the area. The benefits of cooking with LPG outweighed the challenges for them.
Discussions and Conclusion
Cooking with firewood is an ancient tradition among the people of Pitai, passed down through generations by their ancestors. This cultural bond has been deeply ingrained in them since birth. Meanwhile, the lack of information on how to use LPG has made them uncertain about operating LPG stoves. Moreover, they have come across information about the risks associated with LPG, further reinforcing the perception that firewood is a safer option. Despite living in the modern era with easy access to information through the internet, television, radio and newspapers, individual barriers still exist, with some people reluctant to embrace LPG. To address this, it is recommended that the government play a vital role in providing sufficient information to society about the benefits of using modern energy sources. Educating the public can generate interest in and acceptance of LPG, leading to a smoother transition towards its adoption.
Furthermore, the scarcity of LPG supply, coupled with the abundance of firewood and the high price of LPG, significantly impacts the reluctance of Pitai people to consider using LPG. A study by Pattanayak et al. (2004) highlights that rural dwellers in Indonesia are economic-rational decision-makers regarding energy usage. This pattern is also evident in Pitai society, where they make rational decisions about cooking fuel. They weigh the perceived benefits and conclude that LPG would not provide them significant advantages. This perception should be dismissed by furnishing comprehensive information about the advantages of LPG, particularly its positive impact on human health.
Despite the availability of LPG in Pitai, most people there are hesitant to switch to it, as there is a strong preference for using firewood. It is a common trend that fuel switching to LPG is more prevalent in urban areas than in rural areas (Pant, 2008). This explains why many households in rural regions, including Pitai, still rely on firewood for cooking. Additionally, rural energy consumption is influenced by cultural traditions shaped by the local natural environment and socio-economic factors (Liu et al., 2008). The choice of cooking fuel is determined by various factors, such as food structures, types of food and techniques (Ruiz-Mercado et al., 2011). These factors collectively contribute to the prevailing use of firewood in Pitai, despite the availability of LPG.
Ensuring access to clean and affordable energy is crucial for human well-being. In Pitai village, there are potential solutions to reduce the reliance on firewood. One approach is to introduce renewable energy sources like biogas to rural communities, which has been shown to decrease the dependency on firewood (Lewis et al., 2017). While firewood is renewable, its adverse effects on IAP can be mitigated through improved cookstoves (Ballard-Tremeer & Jawurek, 1996). These improved cookstoves reduce IAP and decrease the demand for firewood, thus helping to combat deforestation (Adrianzén, 2013). It is recommended that introducing an improved cookstove in Pitai could be beneficial since many residents still prefer firewood over modern fuels like kerosene and LPG. However, it may not always guarantee immediate success (Troncoso et al., 2007). By promoting renewable energy alternatives and adopting improved cookstoves, Pitai hopes to move towards a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy consumption pattern, ensuring its residents a healthier and cleaner environment. However, market analysis, robust supply chains and price discounts should be considered to ensure its diffusion success (Pattanayak et al., 2019).
As an alternative approach, implementing a rising price strategy for firewood could be considered to reduce its consumption (Schueftan et al., 2016). However, this should be complemented by subsidising clean fuel options for society. A study by Cardoso and González (2019) in Mexico demonstrates that fully subsidised LPG significantly decreased firewood usage. Similarly, some areas of Indonesia observed a positive impact on firewood consumption where LPG was extensively introduced and subsidised. Unfortunately, this massive introduction of subsidised LPG did not extend to Pitai village.
Another viable alternative is to provide access to various fuels as an appropriate strategy to enhance energy supply security (Treiber et al., 2015). Meanwhile, access to modern fuels like LPG in Pitai may incur additional costs. Exploring potential renewable energy sources such as solar energy, biogas and hydroelectric energy can be a practical approach. These renewable energy options promise sustainability and may be well-suited for implementation in Pitai village. By diversifying energy sources and promoting renewables, Pitai can achieve greater energy resilience and reduce its dependence on firewood, leading to a more environmentally friendly and economically sustainable energy landscape.
The utilisation of firewood in developed and developing countries serves distinct purposes. In developing countries, firewood often serves as a primary energy source for domestic use, while in developed countries, rural societies may value firewood for its recreational and cultural significance (CIFOR, 2010). Education is crucial in addressing energy poverty and climate vulnerability, as it can potentially transform social attitudes and behaviours (Tàbara et al., 2020). Studies have shown that education can influence people’s choices regarding firewood usage (Adrianzén, 2013; Baland et al., 2012). A recent study shows that education positively correlates to traditional biomass energy usage (Han et al., 2018; Mottaleb et al., 2017). By promoting awareness and understanding of sustainable energy alternatives, education can foster a shift towards more environmentally responsible practices, reducing the reliance on traditional firewood usage and promoting cleaner and more efficient energy solutions.
Furthermore, augmenting investments in modern and clean energy infrastructure can significantly enhance energy accessibility for society (Wang et al., 2015)—the transition towards cleaner energy sources and advancements in technology (Howells et al., 2010). Donor organisations can play a crucial role in improving access to modern and clean energy for communities (Kees & Feldmann, 2011). Forming partnerships with international organisations also bolsters access to modern energy sources (McDade, 2004). In the context of Pitai, the local government should demonstrate a solid commitment to emphasising and enhancing investment in cleaner energy for the betterment of society.
Finally, the energy ladder theory posits that economic development positively correlates with increased modern energy consumption. Thus, enhancing the development in Pitai village holds the potential to uplift human prosperity and well-being. This progress can have a cascading effect on education by raising awareness about the benefits of using clean energy and improving the affordability of modern energy options for society. As the community advances on the energy ladder, this shift towards cleaner and modern energy sources becomes increasingly feasible, paving the way for a more sustainable and prosperous future.
Observing perspectives within the Pitai community, future research should investigate the significance of adopting renewable energy alternatives near firewood. This exploration becomes crucial if the community, as a whole, is unwilling to embrace non-renewable energy sources like LPG, considering factors such as accessibility, pricing and cultural considerations. Moreover, the limitation of this research is that the study is confined to a specific location. Therefore, future research should consider expanding the study to include additional locations.
Footnotes
Acknowledgement
This research is part of a community engagement programme conducted in a remote area of East Indonesia, which has received funding from the Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Government of Indonesia. The authors are grateful to the authority.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.