OLED-based biosensor for cancer detection

Abstract

The current lifestyle contributes to the increase in the incidence of life-threatening illness like cancer. Methods for early detection of the same can help better patient outcomes. Effective, inexpensive and non-invasive diagnostic methods are often sensitive as well as specific compared to conventional mechanisms. Advances in biosensor technologies have paved the way for low-cost, non-invasive diagnostic techniques that report greater levels of sensitivity and specificity. Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have emerged as a proficient biosensor for clinical diagnostics. This research rigorously investigates the application of OLED-based biosensors for early-stage cancer detection. In addition, a comprehensive analysis of OLED characteristics pertinent to the detection of various cancer types, such as cutaneous and ovarian malignancies, is also reported. We also explore the integration of OLEDs into portable and adaptable diagnostic devices, with the aim of improving their screening capabilities. A parameterized evaluation framework is used to assess the design attributes and operational efficacy of OLED biosensors, emphasizing their suitability for oncological diagnostic applications.

Keywords

Organic light emitting diodes biosensors cancer detection photo-dynamic treatment biomarker

Introduction

Cancer consists of a collection of disorders characterized by excessive growth, spread of malignant cell.¹ Abnormal cells can generate tumors that can infiltrate and obliterate adjacent healthy tissue.¹ Numerous non-invasive techniques exist for cancer detection, although they are prohibitively costly. OLEDs may be used to identify and forecast cancer probabilities depending on characteristics such as blood, serum, saliva, urine, and pH value.² Expensive cancer detection tests may be unavoidable for many individuals. The influence of early identification of cancer biomarkers at the treatment in intial stage has attracted the attention of many studies throughout years of research.

Therefore, a non-invasive portable device using an OLED based biosensor is suggested for the detection of cancer. The primary reason for conducting this research is the fact that 80% of patients diagnosed cancer at later stages.³ Its asymptomatic nature and limitations of current diagnostic techniques, the lack of public knowledge, contribute to delayed detection and poor survival rates. Therefore, early identification of cancer is essential to improve clinical results. The higher mortality rate and worse prognoses result from this. The investigation of new technologies is necessary due to the pressing need for highly accurate, non-invasive and reasonably priced diagnostic instruments. Consequently, the focus is on creating accurate, reliable and affordable diagnostic-tool. This article analyses the operational mechanism of OLEDs and presents the potential for developing a mobile, versatile device for cancer screening and detection.

Originally developed for lighting and display applications, OLEDs are rapidly emerging as a viable biosensor design technique.⁴ They are ideal for developing highly sensitive and specific cancer detection devices due to their special qualities.⁴ The American Cancer Society (ACS) indicates that 5-year survival rates for different types of cancer increased from 50% to 66% between 1996 and 2004.^1,5,6 Technological advances that facilitate early identification and improved treatment are responsible for this increase in survival rates.⁷

Advanced biosensors can significantly improve patient quality of life by facilitating early detection, potentially decreasing cancer mortality rates.⁸ This research emphasizes the assessment of meticulously designed biosensors with the demonstrations of innovative, quick and fast response. These biosensors have potential to transform early diagnostic and therapy options for many malignancies.⁸ Employing advanced biosensor technologies might substantially enhance early cancer diagnosis.⁴ This is particularly vital as several cancer forms advance gradually and have inadequate responses to treatment.

Organic light emitting diodes: Advancing cancer treatment and detection with innovative properties

An Organic Light Emitting Dioses (OLEDs) generates light using electroluminescence, with several thin organic layer interposed between a transparent-anode with a metallic cathode. Upon the application of voltage, the anode injects hole and the cathode injects electrons; these charges move through the organic layers until they meet at the emissive layer, recombining to form an exciton. This exciton-decays to its ground-state, releasing energy manifested as a photon. Hue of photon is determined by qualities of the substance in emissive-layer. The emitted light spreads in all directions, and structures are frequently employed to increase light extraction efficiency. OLED technology can improve cancer diagnosis by increasing sensitivity, multiplexing capability, mobility, cost-effectiveness, and real-time monitoring.

The OLED has many advantages like broad emission angles, high color purity, rapid speed of response, increased efficiencies, diverse spectrum of potential emission wavelengths, exhibits improved tolerances for bending and twisting, allowing fabrication on a diverse array of substrates, enhanced sensitivity, quick reaction times, cost efficiency, and novel uses in point-of-care diagnostics, promoting more precise and prompt cancer treatment etc. Although OLEDs have potential in cancer treatment applications such as Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), they possess some drawbacks. This includes reduced optical power output relative to alternative PDT light sources,⁹ perhaps requiring extended treatment durations.

Figure 1 illustrates the various merits and features of OLEDs. The OLEDs necessitate certain device characteristics for biomedical applications, including mechanical flexibility and robust encapsulation for worn or implanted devices, which might be difficult to provide. The challenges of employing OLED as biosensor are as follows:

Enhancing Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis: In 2025, Tiwari et al.⁴ studies demonstrated that PDT is advantageous in the first phases of cancer detection and therapy worldwide. The study presented utilization of flexible illumination sources that augment the constancy to the light supply and emphasized particular tumor situations, like antimicrobial PDT for diabetic foot ulcers and metronomic PDT for cancer cell death. The prospect of integrating PDT with near-infrared OLEDs for improved tumor targeting efficacy of PDT in oncological treatment, emphasized the OLEDs application for diagnostic and therapeutic functions.

Reduced Optical Power Output: OLEDs have a reduced optical power output relative to lasers, LEDs, and conventional lamps utilized in PDT).¹⁰ Treating bigger or deeper tumors may necessitate extended treatment periods using OLEDs, perhaps posing a barrier in certain instances.⁹ Nonetheless, the reduced intensity may be advantageous, since it facilitates increased diffusion of oxygen to the treatment area, thereby augmenting the therapy’s efficacy.

Mechanical Flexibility and Encapsulation: OLEDs employed in wearable or implantable devices must demonstrate mechanical flexibility and include resilient encapsulation to protect from the body’s environment, a challenging requirements to satisfy.¹¹

Downsizing, Patterning and Requirements of Light Intensity: Certain applications necessitate the downsizing into micrometer scale pixels with great density, presenting further hurdles.¹¹ The necessary light intensity might differ significantly, with wearable devices requiring lower intensities and implantable devices possibly necessitating considerably higher power densities, demanding meticulous device design and optimization.

Penetration-Depth and Ocular Toxicity: PDT often exhibits restricted penetration depth, complicating the successful treatment of extensive or deeply situated malignancies. Although OLEDs may have a lower risk of ocular toxicity compared to LEDs, they nevertheless present some degree of ocular toxicity.¹² The OLED demonstrates certain ocular toxicity; yet, they may be less harmful to the eyes compared to LEDs, potentially owing to the elevated blue-wavelength energy present in LED illumination.¹²

Certain demographic groups, including neonates, older one may exhibit heightened vulnerability pertaining biological-effects induced by blue enriched LEDs.¹³ Concerns over Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) due to continuous light exposure have been expressed, while epidemiological research on the relationship between sun exposure and AMD yield contradictory results.¹³

Blue Light Hazard: Prolonged exposure to blue light, particularly from OLEDs, has been associated with several health concerns, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and sleeplessness. In 2023, Jou et al.¹⁴ has introduced an innovative method to create blue hazard free OLEDs having lifespan beyond 200,000 hours-1000 cd/m $^{2}$ . Consequent apparatus exhibits 37.4 cd/A current effectiveness and 22.7% EQE, 80 Color Rendering Index (CRI), 78 Solar Reflectance Index (SRI), and a lifespan of 223,500 hours.¹⁴

Safety in light-based technologies for sensitive tissues, especially concerning eye toxicity and blue-light risks, is guaranteed by meticulous assessment of light sources, compliance with safety regulations i.e., international standards (such as International-Electrotechnical-Commission (IEC-60601, 60825series), American-National-Standards-Institute (ANSI-Z136)), which establish maximum permissible exposure limits based on wavelength, power, duration of exposure to avert harm.¹⁵

Protective procedures encompass the use of specialist eyeglasses and corneal shields that filter deleterious wavelengths, namely the blue-violet spectrum (415–455 nm) linked to retinal photochemical injury, while permitting advantageous light to pass.¹⁶

Higher Sensitivity: OLED devices offer enhanced sensitivity essential for the early diagnosis of cancer by recognizing low concentrations of cancer biomarkers. OLED-PDT devices exhibit an average peak detection sensitivity of 100 nm/RIU for identifying particular cancer proteins, enabling accurate detection at low concentrations.¹⁷ Moreover, OLED-based biosensors offer superior selectivity and sensitivity relative to traditional diagnostic techniques, rendering them viable options in order to identify biomarkers.¹⁸ Additionally, efficient OLED systems including integrated optical filter, charge integrated circuits have demonstrated sensitivity of point of care diagnostics less than 10 pg/mL, signifying their capacity for identify exceedingly low concentrations of cancer biomarkers.¹⁹

Economic Efficiency: The production and application of OLED technology for cancer diagnosis may be more cost-effective than conventional diagnostic methods. The integration of flat OLED with protein microarray allows high-density multiplexed fluorescence bio-recognition with clinical-level sensitivity, while the commercial display technology substantially decreases substrate costs to mere cents per cm $^{2}$ .¹⁹ The decrease in costs is accomplished by utilizing the existing industrial infrastructure of commercial flat panel OLED production, capable of producing devices for around 10 cents per square centimeter, hence decreasing the expense of biosensor substrates. OLED technology for point of care diagnostics offers potential for developing economical, disposable, and multiplexed biosensors, thereby enhancing the accessibility and cost-effectiveness of advanced cancer diagnosis.¹⁹

Physiological Variability: Biofouling significantly impairs Electro-Chemical (EC) sensors when subjected to intricate biological materials such as blood, plasma, saliva, or urine, resulting in diminished sensitivity and selectivity.²⁰ Blood comprises elevated-concentrations of organisms and proteins may result in biofouling.²¹ The bioinspired antifouling coatings are nanoporous composites that may incorporate conductive nanoparticles, including Gold Nano-Wires, Carbon Nano-Tubes (CNTs) and Reduced Graphene Oxide Nano-flakes (rGOx).²⁰

The advancement of these coatings has consistently enhanced performance while streamlining the production flow, minimizing time, and lowering costs.²⁰ The enhanced coating exhibited superior antifouling efficacy against diverse biological-fluids.²⁰ The concepts of antifouling coatings are significantly applicable to optical biosensors, such as OLED-based systems, to sustain performance in biological settings, despite breakthroughs being mostly in electrochemical sensors.²⁰

Figure 1.

Various Merits and Features of Organic Light Emitting Diodes.

Challenges in manufacturing of large-scale OLED-based biosensor and their impact

Large-scale production of OLED-based biosensors faces challenges in scaling from laboratory to industry, affecting cost and consistency. The challenges in manufacturing large-scale OLED-based biosensors are as follows:

Material and Process Complexity: OLEDs depend on organic carbon-based substances that are delicate and intricate to manage, particularly to achieve uniform layer deposition over extensive surfaces. Accurate regulation of thin film thickness ( 0.5 $μ$ m) and layer homogeneity is essential, since variations may lead to flaws like electrical-leakage and short-circuits.²²

High-Defect Rates: Extensive OLED biosensors are vulnerable to particulate flaws and electrical malfunctions.²² In the absence of real-time in-line inspection and quality control measures, faulty devices may be approved, hence diminishing overall output and increasing expenses.²²

Material Degradation and Device Longevity: Specifically for steady blue OLED emitters, many degradation mechanisms hinder the constant production of high-performance devices.²³

Encapsulation and Stability: OLED systems need efficient encapsulation to safeguard organic layers from moisture and oxygen, which impair performance and longevity.²⁴

Costs of Advanced Manufacturing Equipment: The initial outlay for specialized OLED manufacturing techniques and equipment (such as vacuum evaporation systems and inspection instruments) is substantial, which raises the bar for economically viable large-scale production.²⁴

Challenges in Roll-to-Roll Printing: Roll-to-roll techniques provide economical, high-speed production for flexible OLEDs; yet, they need meticulous regulation of many parameters, therefore increasing process complexity.²⁴

Impact on reproducibility and affordability:

Producing consistent OLED-based biosensors on a large scale is difficult due to manufacturing variations. Table 1 illustrates the impact of large-scale OLED-based biosensor manufacturing on reproducibility and affordability. This inconsistencies affect film quality and lead to non-uniform performance of device. The development of innovative technologies and materials, such as solution-processed all-organic sensors, is crucial to making OLED biosensors more accessible for widespread use, though these solutions are still in early development.

Table 1.

Impact of challenges in large-scale OLED-based biosensor manufacturing on reproducibility and affordability.

Parameter	Impact on Reproducibility	Impact on Affordability
Material Complexity, Sensitivity	Sensitive organic materials require precise control and reduced the uniformity of equipment²⁵	High-expenses for organic resources and complex handling increase production rates^24,25
Device Scalability	Transitioning from laboratory to industrial scale introduces heterogeneity in layer uniformity, performance of device^24,25	Challenges in scaling diminish yield, resulting in increased expenses²⁵
Challenges in Encapsulation	Inadequate encapsulation results in moisture and oxygen infiltration, leading to deterioration that affects device stability²⁵	Superior encapsulation materials and techniques increase production expenses²⁵
Defect-Rates, Quality Assurance	Large-area devices susceptible to granular flaws and electrical malfunctions diminish yield and reproducibility^24,25	High-defect rates decrease manufacturing efficiency, enhance cost^24,25
Challenges in Roll to Roll Printing	Challenges in process control affect film reproducibility^24,25	Attractive manufacturing technology with reduced costs^24,25

Addressing environmental and physiological variability in OLED biosensor

OLED biosensors address environmental and physiological fluctuations, including pH, temperature, and biofouling, by smart sensor design with innovative anti-biofouling coatings.^26–28 Unregulated chemical interactions may result in experimental artifacts in electronics designed for signal processing.²⁹ These devices provide prospects for chemical modification,³⁰ doping, mixing at the interface, facilitating the development of innovative designs, functional transistors, bio-detection instruments, and flexible electronics.

Temperature fluctuations can affect enzyme processes, molecular transport and the stability of organic materials.³¹ Increased temperatures³² may accelerate the deterioration of organic layers, resulting in decreased device longevity, performance variability. Furthermore, variations in temperature might influence the binding-affinity, hence modifying sensor’s selectivity and sensitivity.³³ Katchman et al.¹⁹ investigated the impact of temperature on general biosensor performance, such as a portable temperature-humidity control device for lateral flow assays.¹⁹ Recent progress in pH sensing devices include tiny pH biosensors utilizing electrochemically modified materials, designed to enhance sensitivity and reliability.

An electrochemical biosensor intended for customized treatment has a mechanism to monitor and regulate pH and temperature fluctuations in patient samples.³⁴ The detection of pharmaceuticals using cytochrome P450-based electrochemical sensors is critical, as pH variations can influence both the potential, which indicates drug kind, and the current, which signifies drug concentration.³⁴ In 2011, De Venuto et al.³⁴ presented a novel architecture for multiplexing molecular biosensing with temperature and pH measurements. Molecular sensing is utilized for drug detection. The biosensor prototype for drug detection employs P450 3A4, facilitating extensive application for a range of pharmaceuticals.³⁴ It incorporates pH and temperature monitoring for accurate electrochemical detection in various biological fluids. This technology offers a viable approach for multi-drug monitoring in customized therapy. Bio-fouling severely reduces the lifespan and functioning of biosensors, especially those that are implanted in the body or function in complicated biofluids.³⁵ This process may result in the progressive passivation of the transducer surface, obstructing direct interaction with the target analyte and significantly compromising sensitivity, repeatability, stability, and overall dependability.³⁵

The remaining sections of the paper are arranged in following sections. The Section “Introduction” Introduction itself, having three subsections i.e., “Organic light emitting diodes: Advancing cancer treatment and detection with innovative properties”, discusses the advancing cancer treatment and detection with innovative properties, “Challenges in manufacturing of large-scale OLED-based biosensor and their impact” illustrates the challenges in manufacturing of large-scale OLED-based biosensor and their impact, “Addressing environmental and physiological variability in OLED biosensor” addresses the environmental and physiological variability in the OLED-based biosensor. Section “Biosensor architecture and key functional elements” describes the architecture of the biosensor. Further, Section “Cancer detection using organic semiconductors” contains cancer detection techniques using organic semiconductors, Furthermore, Section “OLEDs Potential in cancer diagnostics” provides a detailed exploration of various cancer detection techniques using OLED, and subsection “Ovarian-cancer detection utilizing oled technology” illustrates ovarian cancer detection using OLED and subsection “Detection of skin cancer using OLED” identifies skin cancer using OLED and subsection “Detection of various cancers using OLED”, discusses different techniques using OLED for cancer detection.

Subsequently, Section “Assessment using photo-dynamics theraphy” reveals the different assessment using Photo-Dynamics Theraphy (PDT), referring to Section “Limitations of light penetration in human tissues during PDT” which describes the limitations of light penetration in human tissues during PDT and overcoming those limitations in subsection “Overcoming light penetration limitations with OLED-based PDT devices”. Additionally, Section “OLED as Biosensor for disease identification” discusses the OLEDs as Biomarker for identification of various human diseases having subsection “Multiplexed detection techniques of OLED-based biosensor” describes the multiplexed detection techniques used in OLEDs Biosensor and subsection “Comparative analysis of OLED-based detection technique with gold standard techniques” illustrates the comparative analysis of OLED-based detection technique with gold standard techniques. Finally, Section “Conclusion” concludes the OLED techniques used for cancer detection and leads the researcher to a comprehensive understanding of the importance of the study and leading prospective areas for future research on cancer detection.

Biosensor architecture and key functional elements

A biosensor is a technology that detects biological-analytes, which may come from environment or human-body.⁸ Details include whether or whether analyte levels and presence are turned into a quantifiable electrical signal that could measured, studied. Proteins and nucleic acids, and other bio-logical substances are examples of analytes. Biosensors can be used in medicine to diagnose and track cancer, identify infections, and check blood glucose levels in diabetics. Biosensors can be utilized in environment settings for identify dangerous germs, in food, water or air. The creation of biosensors to combat bioterrorism is of great interest to the military. Biosensors created with three main parts: a signal transducer, a recognition device, signal-processor showing data. The identification of molecules When an analyte is detected by the component as a ”signal” from the environment, the transducer translates biological signal into an electrical-output. The functional architecture of the biosensor (which may be mechanical, optical, electrochemical, electrical, or optoelectronic) is illustrated in Figure 2. A biosensor is an analytical instrument that identifies biological substances and transforms their presence or concentration into a quantifiable signal. It generally comprises three primary components organized sequentially: Bioreceptor, Transducer, and Signal Processor. The bioreceptor, which may be an enzyme, antibody, or DNA strand, precisely interacts with the target analyte, such as glucose, toxins, or infections, and initiates a biological reaction. The recognition element, crucial for selectivity, can be naturally occurring (e.g., purified proteins, antibodies, enzymes, nucleic acids) or synthetic (designed for improved stability and reproducibility).

Figure 2.

Basic Components and Functional Architecture of A Biosensor.

Examples include antibodies (like anti-PSA for prostate cancer detection), cell-surface receptors (though their use is complex due to membrane requirements), and aptamers (oligonucleotides selected for high target affinity via SELEX technology, enabling discovery of cancer biomarkers. The reaction is transmitted to the transducer, that transforms bio-logical contact into quantifiable signal—such as electrical, optical, thermal, or mass-based signals transformation of a molecule’s recognition process into a quantifiable signal (amperometric, potentio-metric), mass based, and temperature-based i.e., calorimetric.³⁶

This signal is then amplified and processed to provide quantifiable data related to the presence and concentration of the target molecule, without requiring prior purification. An OSC-based biosensor is an example, which includes OLEDs, OTFT, OECs, and solar cells, among others. In order to identify and characterize a wide variety of cancer biomarkers, the OLED based cancer biosensor is analyzed in this research.

Cancer detection using organic semiconductors

Organic semiconductors have potential in advancing novel cancer detection methods. Recent breakthroughs include the use of Organic Electro-Chemical Transistors (OECTs) for the real-time screening of cancer metastasis, facilitating the identification of phenotypic alterations in cancer cells.³⁷ Moreover, organic semiconductors are used in optical biosensors designed to detect particular biomarkers linked to different cancer types, including circulating tumor cells and exosomal microRNAs. This technique enables both the early identification and dynamic monitoring of cancer development.³⁸ Incorporating organic semiconductors into detecting systems enables researchers to develop extremely sensitive, portable, and economical cancer detection devices.

Photoelectrochemical Sensors

An advanced photoelectrochemical sensor was created using the organic semiconductor Y6 in conjunction with gold nanoparticles, facilitating to detecting Carcino-Embryonic-Antigen (CEA) having detection limit $0.5 pg / mL$ .³⁹ The use of enzyme-embedded nanoparticles improves the sensor’s efficacy, allowing selective detection via a sandwich configuration on the electrode surface.³⁹

Nanoparticles of Organic Semiconductors

Organic Semiconducting Nanoparticles (OSNs) have potential in biosensing applications, enabling high-resolution detection of diverse biological substances, such as cancer biomarkers.⁴⁰ Notwithstanding obstacles like as photo-degradation, OSNs may be designed for enhanced stability and usefulness, rendering them suitable for in vivo tracking and tumor localization.⁴⁰

Organic-Light-Emitting Diodes

Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) has utilized in fluorescence-linked immunosorbent assays for the identification of disease-biomarkers.⁴¹ The OLEDs efficacy in delivering requisite light for such tests enhances the overall sensitivity and precision of cancer detection. OLEDs provide high-resolution images with superior contrast, which is crucial to identifying tiny tissue changes that can indicate malignancy. The precision and complexity in imaging enable the detection of anomalies that conventional methods may detect.

Organic Phototransistors

Organic Phototransistors (OPTs) transform light impulses into electrical signals, providing benefits in signal amplification and noise reduction, essential for cancer detection.⁴² Their lightweight and flexible attributes make them suitable for applications, improving accessibility in clinical environments.⁴²

Organic Semiconductors at the Quantum Scale

Recent advancements have established quantum-scale organic semiconductors as transformative instruments for label-free detection of genomic DNA associated with cancer.⁴³ These semiconductors provide examination of structural and molecular anomalies at very low detection thresholds.⁴³ Their capacity to provide high-resolution data on gene expression makes them essential for understanding cancer dynamics and formulating targeted therapeutics.

In 2024, Khayam et al.⁴⁴ developed compact, Ultra Wide Band (UWB) printable UHF-antennas for Partial-Discharge-detection in high-voltage, for 0.3-3 GHz bandwidth within a 100mm GIS dielectric window.⁴⁴ This innovation enables more efficient and reliable PD detection across various insulating media.⁴⁴ In 2025, Malecka-Baturo K Grabowska³³ examined the potential avenues for advancement, obstacles, and opportunities in the domain of multi-analyte electrochemical immuno-ageno(apta)-sensors.³³ Recent developments emphasize numerous techniques, such as photoelectrochemical sensors and organic phototransistors, which use the distinctive characteristics of organic materials for efficient cancer biomarker detection.

OLEDs potential in cancer diagnostics

OLED technology is also applied in certain cancer detection techniques using its specific optical properties to enhance sensitivity and specificity.⁴⁵ A good example is the use of OLED-based Fluorescence-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (FLISA) that utilize OLEDs as sources for light in order to trigger fluorescent labels bound to cancer biomarkers.⁴¹ OLEDs are flexible and compact, making them well suited for quick and precise point-of-care cancer screening. The basic structure of OLED used in various applications is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Schematic Diagram of OLED Structure Used in Different Applications.

OLED has various layers situated between a cathode and an anode, there are additional layers designed to enhance charge transmission in between.^46,47 The Emissive Layer (EML) is the primary layer of OLEDs, as this is where light production transpires. Upon the application of voltage, electrons are introduced from cathode to the EML, while holes are introduced from anode into conductive-layer. Electrons and holes travel towards one another and merge in the EML to generate excitons.⁴⁷ When these excited states revert to a lower energy level, they emit energy as light, a phenomenon termed recombination. The hue of the produced light is dictated by the chemical composition of the light-emitting substance, enabling regulation of the display’s hues.⁴⁷ By appropriately designing organic molecules, we may manipulate the energy differential between the excited state and the ground state, enabling emission in the blue, green, and red regions.⁴⁷

Ovarian-cancer detection utilizing OLED technology

OLED technology is under development for sensitive ovarian cancer diagnostic devices. OLED biosensors detect certain ovarian cancer markers in body fluids. They function by emitting light from OLEDs as a result of electrical stimulation, indicating the presence of biomarkers. Surface modification of the OLED with antibodies makes signal changes quantifiable if the biomarker is present. This leads to a rapid, cost-effective, early and accurate diagnostic tool for ovarian cancer.

Table 2 illustrates the different applications of OLED detecting ovarian cancer. In 2010, Masilamani et al.³⁶ developed a non invasive technique to detect cancer based-on fluorescence-characteristics of urine and analyzed Stokes-Shift-Spectra (SSS), Fluorescence-Emission-Spectra (FES).³⁶ A high-resolution, high-speed light-addressable potentiometric sensor was reported in 2012 by Werner et al.⁵⁰ Threm et al.⁵¹ produced cost-effective, high-performance OLED-OPD on one substrate in the same year.

Table 2.

Different applications of OLED in detecting ovarian cancer.

Year	Author	Key Findings
2025	Tiwari et al.⁴	Highlighted potential in treatment of various cancers
2021	Negi et al.⁴⁸	Used triple-hole blocking Layers OLED to the identification for ovarian cancer, demonstrating a favorable response to several wavelength
2019	Negi et al.⁴⁹	Developed a sensor application using OLEDs to diagnose ovarian cancer

In addition, Marcello et al.⁵² created a small biochip with a deep blue OLED for medical diagnosis in 2013. This biochip, with emphasis on fluorescence detection, efficiently excited fluorophore-conjugated antibodies, exhibiting high sensitivity and specificity. Zvarik et al.⁵³ studied differences in urine fluorescence between healthy humans and women with ovarian cancer. Urine specimens were excited between 250-530 nm, and emission was seen from 270-650 nm.

In 2016, Katchman et al.¹⁹ investigated the use of commercial OLED displays for low-cost, multiplexed circulating cancer biomarker detection. The method substitutes optical components with OLEDs, which is ideal for point-of-care. Figure 4 depicts the process diagram of steps involved in detecting ovarian cancer using the fluorescence emission mechanism. A silicon photodiode in photovoltaic mode measures weak fluorescence, allowing accurate identification of low biomarker concentrations essential for cancer diagnosis.¹⁹

Figure 4.

Process Diagram of Steps Involved in Ovarian Cancer Detection Methodology, Where OLED is Used as Source and Detector at the Input and Output Terminal Respectively.

Afterthat, In 2019, Negi et al.⁴⁹ suggested a handheld OLED-based approach for the detection of ovarian cancer via fluorescence emission. Here, OLED is used as source and light detector.⁴⁹ An OLED light source that fluoresces between the 300-440 nm range stimulates the urine samples, inducing fluorescence.⁴⁹ This is followed by detection via another OLED device. The detection OLED generates different values of current depending on the emission of the sample and thereby differentiates between emissions at 420 nm and 440 nm.⁴⁹

Further in 2021, Negi et al.⁴⁸ suggested a unique triple-hole blocking Layers OLED structure, that was demonstrated an improved luminosity of 25,285 cd/m $^{2}$ , indicating a 47% improvement over multi-layered OLED design.⁴⁸ This improvement is due to enhanced electron injection and effective hole blocking layers⁴⁸ respectively.

Figure 5 illustrates the comprehensive flow chart of the ovarian cancer detection methodology using fluorescence emission.⁴⁹ An OLED-based fluorescence sensing system employs OLEDs to excite fluorescent molecules in a sample.⁴⁹ The device demonstrated strong responses across various wavelengths, yielding a maximum photocurrent of 93 mA, and can differentiate healthy individuals (420 nm emission, 5 mA cathode current) from cancer patients (440 nm emission, 1 mA cathode current) based on urine fluorescence.⁴⁸ For ovarian cancer diagnosis, an OLED violet of 420-440 nm emission is generally used.

Figure 5.

Flowchart of Ovarian Cancer Detection Methodology using Fluorescence Emission.

This technology facilitate the creation of portable, versatile, and cost-effective biomedical sensors that are portable and primarily theoretical.^4,48,49

Katchman et al.¹⁹ discussed the utilization of flat panel OLED display technology for point-of-care detecting different biomarkers, especially IgG antibodies- various viral antigens and HPV16 proteins, in patient blood samples. This does not provide a direct comparison with biopsy for cancer detection in urine specimens. This immunoassay exhibited comparable accuracy and specificity in identifying blood antibodies against HPV16 E7 when contrasted with the standard laboratory ELISA. Both tests yielded comparable findings for the identification of HPV16 E2 and E7 antibodies. The point-of-care test had a lower sensitivity (59%) than the laboratory ELISA (83%) at 95% specificity.¹⁹ This method enables for multiplexed immunoassays in a small, disposable design, boosting sensitivity and enabling quick detection of several biomarkers. Table 3 illustrates the capabilities and data of clinically tested for OLED-based devices.

Table 3.

OLED-based devices tested on human trials.

Sensor Type/Technique	Ref.	Sample Used	Technique Used	Clinically Tested
Protein Microarray Immunosensor	Katchman et al.¹⁹	Human IgG, HPV16 E2, E6, E7 antibodies in patient serum samples	Fluorescent protein microarray with OLED array and photodiode array	Yes
Photosensitizer, Singlet-Oxygen-Sensor- Green (SOSG)	Jeon et al.⁵⁴	-	PAOLED for reduction in melanoma cancer cell	in vitro
Metronomic-Photodynamic Therapy (mPDT)	Itazaki et al.⁵⁵	Blood	Wiress OLED device fabrication	Yes, but in Rat-Model not-on-human

In ovarian cancer, although OLED-based fluorescence detection in urine samples may distinguish between healthy and malignant samples, there is an acknowledged necessity for more comprehensive clinical data.⁴⁸ In addition to ovarian cancer, OLED-based FLISA have been examined for various-biomarkers in human serum, showcasing its promise for compact and sensitive point-of-care diagnostics.⁴¹ An OLED-FLISA system effectively identified SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in diluted human blood, with one research estimated its sensitivity to be roughly 80 times greater than that of a commercial lateral flow antibody test.⁴¹ This underscores the significant sensitivity attainable with OLED-based systems, which may be enhanced by the optimization of OLED architecture, the management of leakage light, and the selection of suitable fluorescent dyes such as phycoerythrin.⁴¹ However, OLED-based systems for detecting biomarkers remain unsuitable for extensive clinical use and require enhancements in reagent utilization, dimensions, sensitivity, and multiplex testing functionalities.⁴¹

Detection of skin cancer using OLED

OLED technology enhances skin cancer diagnosis by emitting certain wavelengths of light for improved lesion inspection. This process, in conjunction with AI, provides precise and early detection of different skin cancers, such as carcinoma, sarcomas, and melanoma. The outcome is accurate diagnosis essential for timely treatment. In 2008, Attili et al.,⁵⁶ presented a low-irradiance, disposable OLED light source for PDT of non-melanoma skin cancers. There were 12-patients having Bowen disease, carcinoma of lesions less than 2 cm, which were histologically confirmed.⁵⁶ Red light therapy (550–750 nm, peak 620 nm, 5 mW cmcm²) given twice with aminolevulinic acid, 1 month apart, was beneficial in 7 out of 12 patients after 12 months, median-pain score-1 on Numerical-Rating-Scale (NRS). The different types of skin cancer is illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6.

Different Types of Skin Cancer.

In 2022, Lian et al.⁴¹ pushed the frontier of point-of-care testing by creating an OLED-based FLISA for identifying SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulinsin human serum utilizing Phycoerythrin as a fluorescent dye for higher sensitivity. Furthermore, Lian et al.⁵⁷ created a compact OLED-based DNA detection system for fluorescence sensing and optimized OLEDs with co-host layer, pulsed voltage operation, employs a Cy3/Cy5 Forster-Resonance-Energy Transfer (FRET) pair to achieve sensitive and accurate DNA/RNA and protein detection, suggesting its suitability for point-of-care diagnostics.

In 2024, Irianto et al.⁵⁸ examined the skin cancer identification by integration-region growing techniques with a deep learning algorithm. Further, Lee et al.⁵⁹ proved OLED irradiation to be as effective, if not more, as LED in optimizing collagen in-vitro. In addition, OLED exposure in UV-irradiated animal models exhibited decreased wrinkles, enhanced dermal collagen density, and improved wound healing, pointing towards its dermal rejuvenation and tissue repair potential.

The different applications of OLED used in detecting skin cancer is illustrated in Table 4. Additionally, in 2024 Ramadhan et al.⁶² created an elliptical core Photonic-Crystal-Fiber-Sensor predicated upon Surface-Plasmon-Resonance (PCF-SPR) sensor that has a high sensitivity of 24,000 nm/RIU in all four modes. They used Au and TiO2 as plasmonic and adhesive materials, respectively, with the ideal thicknesses. The sensor parameters were optimized using a machine learning algorithm, which produced a remarkably low MSE of 0.00083.⁶²

Table 4.

Different applications of OLED used in identification of skin cancer.

Author’s and Ref.	Color	Wavelength (nm)	Key Findings
Jeon et al.⁵⁴ 2020	Red	630	High-power PAOLED reduced the viability of melanoma cancer cells by 24%
Piksa et al.⁶⁰ 2023	Red	610	Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (APDT) used OLED for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers
Lee et al.⁵⁹ 2024	-	625-630	OLED reduced skin wrinkles, increased collagen density, accelerated wound recovery, and proved safe in UV-irradiated animal models
Deng et al.⁶¹ 2024	Red	630	Demonstrated a non-invasive OLED treatment in mitigating aging process and prolonging longevity to SAMP 8 mice

In 2024, Deng et al.⁶¹ showed that OLED therapy delays aging in SAMP8 mice by promoting stem cell proliferation, migration, and diminishing senescence-associated $β$ -galactosidase activity. It also enhanced survival, physical aspect, collagen density, bone quality, and overall quality of life. OLEDs applied in skin lesion examination predominantly produce red (625-630 nm) and near-infrared (NIR) light.⁵⁹ The range of 625-630 nm is responsible for the stimulation of collagen synthesis and healing of wounds, while 700 nm NIR penetrates more and stimulates more cell proliferation.⁵⁹ The 590-630 nm range is also predominantly used in the irradiation of skin lesions in diagnostics and photodynamic treatment.⁵⁹

Therefore, Red OLEDs with 630 nm wavelengths are utilized as much as possible for the detection of skin cancer because of their combined effectiveness and biological effectiveness.⁵⁹

Detection of various cancers using OLED

OLED technology offers a promising approach for cancer diagnostics, especially for Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)-associated cancers like breast, lung, head, neck cancer etc.¹⁹

OLED-immunosensors with their planar sandwich optical structure facilitate multiplexed and affordable detection of HPV protein antibodies such as E2 Katchman et al.,¹⁹ which has the potential for extended cancer diagnostics.

In 2015, Guo et al.⁶⁶ showed the effectiveness of OLED-PDT in reducing glioma in mice with low intensity and long duration of light, enhancing survival. In 2016, Katchman et al.¹⁹ also demonstrated that OLED technology was able to detect IgG antibodies against viral antigens and HPV16 proteins (E2, E6, E7) in the blood of patients, which can act as cervical cancer biomarkers. FAN et al.⁶⁷ in 2016 developed a handheld device based on DPV and a microfluidic paper-based analytical system for quick, sensitive tumor detection with an OLED display. In 2023, Han et al.⁶⁴ demonstrated AI can be 95% accurate, making process automated and more effective in detecting defects.

Further in 2025, Tai and Chiu⁶⁵ introduced an Active- Plasmonic-Colorimetric (APC) biosensor that combines an OLED and Gold Nano-grating for high-sensitivity using surface plasmon resonance. The sensor identifies changes in the refractive index via wavelength shifts, demonstrates potential for the detection of Neuron-Specific-Enolase (NSE) in lung cancer diagnosis, providing detection range (1–100 ng/mL) with a minimal detection-limit (200 pg/mL).⁶⁵ The different types of cancer detection techniques using OLED depicts in Table 5.

Table 5.

OLED applications in the detection process of various types of cancers.

Year	Ref.	Cancer Type	OLED Color/Wavelength (nm)	Key Findings
2015	Anderson et al.⁶³	Oropharyngeal Cancer	Green	Examined the correlation between antibodies to HPV16 proteins and oropharyngeal cancer (OPC) risk by comparing serum samples from OPC patients and controls. They determined that certain IgG antibodies were highly elevated in OPC patients and correlated with both tumor HPV status and smoking history
2016	Katchman et al.¹⁹	Cervical, Oropharyngeal, Anal	Green (515)	IgG antibodies to numerous viral antigens may be quantitatively detected, patient-blood samples, to human IgG detection limits of 10 pg/mL
2021	Murawski and Gather¹¹	Various Cancers	–	Biomedical, biomonitoring devices, helpful in sensing and detecting cancer
2022	Lian et al.⁴¹	SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Detection	Blue(495)/Green(519)	Developed an OLED-based FLISA for the identification of cancer biomarker
2023	Han et al.⁶⁴	Detecting Various Cancers	–	Highlighted the integration of AI at the OLED-cell level, enhanced efficiency, accuracy
2025	Tiwari et al.⁴	Ovarian, Prostate, Skin, Brain, Breast	Red, Near-Infrared (NIR), Blue, Violet	Highlighted potential in treating various cancers and mental health issues, with a focus on wavelength-specific applications
2025	Tai et al.⁶⁵	Lung Cancer	–, 555	Examined an Active Plasmonic Colorimetric (APC) detection chip for quantitative biomolecule detection. The sensor exhibited an extensive linear detection range from 1 ng/mL to 100 ng/mL, with a minimal detection limit of 200 pg/mL.

Based on the researches, it is conculded that OLED-based devices in cervical cancer make it easier to identify circulating biomarkers.¹⁹ For anal and oropharyngeal malignancies, OLED technology works with fluorescent biorecognition systems to identify particular cancer biomarkers, increasing detection sensitivity and specificity.^68,69. In breast cancer diagnostics, OLED screens aid in the identification of tumor antigen antibodies, facilitating customized cancer detection and management.¹⁹ OLED-enabled optical imaging methods help identify brain cancer by outlining tumor margins with high resolution.⁷⁰

For prostate cancer, OLED-based PDT, optical detection technologies are being developed to help in intraoperative evaluation of malignant tissue margins, hence improving surgical results by accurate tumor identification.⁴ Based on the research, it is concluded that around 630 nm wavelength, Red color flexible and wavelength tunable OLED has been preferred for early diagnosis of different cancers.

Assessment using photo-dynamics theraphy

Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT) targets and eliminates cancerous cells by combining photosensitizers with light radiation.⁴ When photo-sensitizer absorbs light energy during a particular wave-length, it acts light sensitive catalyst that excites and passes energy to nearby molecular oxygen, producing Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), which have a cytotoxic effect and cause tumor cells to be destroyed.⁴ Detecting malignant cells using the fluorescence released by Photo-Sensitizers (PS) is commonly referred to as Photo-Dynamic Diagnosis (PDD).⁷¹ It moves into PDT⁷² by PDD under increased light intensity.

There are three distinct generations of PS used in PDT. Despite being approved for use in cancer treatments, first-generation PSs like Porfimer Sodium (Photofrin) have some drawbacks, like prolonged photosensitivity of the skin. Further, second generation PSs, like 5 Amino Levulinic Acid (5 ALA) and mTHPC (temoporfin), have higher tissue penetration, reduced skin sensitivity, and enhanced tumor selectivity.⁴ As demonstrated by 3-Generation PS that are integrated to molecules by Photofrin linked with monoclonal antibodies, hence enhancing selectivity for cancer cells.⁷² Numerous malignancies are treated with PDT. The PDT may employ laser, LED or lamp as light sources.⁷¹

By substituting OLEDs for LEDs, the therapy’s risk is decreased and treatment times can be prolonged since OLEDs don’t need backlights and are sources that emit themselves.⁴ In 2009, Attili et al.⁵⁶ studied a case utilizing a low irradiance OLED apparatus for Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT) in 12-patient with Bowen’s illness with superficial basal cell carcinoma. Individuals recieving medical care received two treatments accompanied by the OLED after aminolaevulinic acid’s use. Seven patients, after follow-up of 12 months, showed complete clearance of their lesions. The research suggested that OLED-PDT is tolerable procedure and potentially expedient alternative to traditional photo dynamic therapy to nonmelanoma skin cancer Attili et al.⁵⁶ The different applications of OLED in PDT is depicted in Table 6.

Table 6.

OLED applications in photo-dynamic treatment (PDT).

Year	Ref.	Cancer/Disease Type	OLED Color/Wavelength (nm)	Key Findings
2009	Attili et al.⁷³	Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer	Red (620)	Assessed the efficacy and discomfort levels of a thin, OLED light source for Photo-Dynamic Treatment (PDT)
2019	Lian et al.⁶	Bacterial Infections	FOLED	Reported a FOLED (Flexible OLED) as light-source for Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT) for killing bacteria
2025	Kao et al.⁷⁴	Newborn-Jaundice	Blue(430-530)	Created Tandem OLEDs for phototherapy of newborn jaundice
2025	Osaki et al.⁷⁵	Metronomic PDT for Mouse Mammary

In 2012, Werner et al.⁵⁰ demonstrated a light-addressable potentiometric sensor that attained high resolution and improved operational speed. In the same year,⁵¹ documented the manufacture of OLED-OPD on a single-substrate, which decreased development costs and improved performance. Sim et al.⁷⁶ suggested the OLED catheter’s potential for treating type 2 diabetes and other diseases. Researcher created a flexible OLED catheter for internal Photo-Biomodulation (PBM) in tubular organs. They tested it on diabetic rats, found that red light delivered via the catheter reduced hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and liver fibrosis.

In 2018, Lee et al.⁷⁷ combined the second generation red, green OLEDs with a small-molecule Organic Photo-Diode (OPD) as onto a flexible substrate, OLEDs and OPDs are used to measure pulse rate by detecting reflected light from blood vessels.

Author optimized the sensor architecture by analyzing light propagation in the skin based on the OLED emission spectra.⁷⁷ The monolithic integration of organic devices demonstrates their potential for enabling all-day wearable health monitoring systems due to their form factor advantages and energy efficiency.

Furthermore in 2025, Kao et al.⁷⁴ created tandem-OLEDs that include BCzVBi and FIrpic emitters to provide a wide blue emission spectrum (430–530 nm) designed for phototherapy of newborn jaundice.⁷⁴ In same year, Osaki et al.⁷⁵ compared the therapeutic effects of 5-ALA-mediated metronomic photodynamic-Therapy (mPDT) using red (620nm) and green (542nm) light. While green light produced more localized ROS, red light penetrated deeper, leading to greater overall tumor suppression in vivo. The findings suggested that red light is more effective for 5-ALA-mPDT despite lower singlet oxygen concentration.⁷⁵

Additionally, Tiwari et al.⁴ focused on the clinical applications of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) using OLEDs for cancer treatment and diagnosis. The study examined various tumor cases treated with PDT, including its use against antibiotic-resistant infections in diabetic ulcers and the benefits of low-intensity light exposure. The key factors are presented in Table 7 elaborated that the cost factor is high only in case of phosphorescence (2-generation), while light conversion efficiency is low only in case of fluorescence (1-generation).

Table 7.

Impact of OLED generations in PDT applications.

OLED-Generations in OLED-PDT applications	Light-Conversion Efficiency	Spectral Bandwidth	Cost Factor
1-Generation	Low	High	Low
(Fluorescence)
2-Generation	High	Low	High
(Phosphorescence)
3-Generation	High	Low	Low
(Thermally-Activated Delayed-Fluorescence-TADF)
4-Generation	High	High	Low
(Hyperfluorescent)

Furthermore, it explored the potential advantages of combining PDT with NIR-OLEDs for improved tumor targeting.⁴ The performance and quality of OLED-PDT are determined by both the technology and generating method.

Limitations of light penetration in human tissues during PDT

The penetration of light in human tissues significantly restricts the efficacy of PDT treatment, especially for deep-seated malignancies.⁷⁸ This constraints poses a significant challenge to the treatment of internal organs and deep-seated tumors.⁷⁹ The impact of various OLED generations in PDT applicaions is depicted in Table 7. The challenges of light penetration in human tissues are as follows:

Absorption and Scattering: The absorption and dispersion of light by diverse tissue constituents, including melanin, hemoglobin, water, fat, elastin, and collagen, markedly diminish light intensity as it traverses tissue.⁸⁰ In the optical range of 600 to 1300 nm, melanin and hemoglobin mostly absorb wavelengths below 1000 nm, whilst water becomes the predominant absorber beyond 1000 nm.⁸⁰ The penetration depth is defined as the distance at which light intensity diminishes to 1/e, indicating that about 37% of the incident optical energy persists. Red light generally penetrates just a few millimeters (0.1–0.3 cm) in the majority of tissues.⁸¹ For instance, visible and ultraviolet light often penetrate healthy skin tissue to a depth of 0.5 to 2.5 mm, dependent upon the wavelength. Light within the 400–700 nm spectrum exhibits inadequate tissue penetration, hence limiting the efficacy of PDT for deep-seated malignancies.

Challenges in Dosimetry: Effective PDT requires accurate estimation of the light dosage applied to the target tissue.⁷⁸ But when light moves deeper into tissue, its intensity decreases nonlinearly, making this more difficult.⁸¹ Specular reflectance and the air-brain barrier can affect light fluence at the tissue surface.⁸¹

Dependency on Wavelength: The wavelength of light used has a significant impact on PDT’s efficacy.⁸¹ For deep-seated tumors, shorter visible light wavelengths (400–700 nm) are less effective due to their poor tissue penetration.⁷⁹ According to some research, the residual optical energy can cause PDT effects up to 2 cm within brain tissues, even though red light (630 nm) normally only penetrates a few millimeters into tissues (defined as the depth at which incident optical energy drops to approximately 37%).⁸¹ Due to substantially lower absorption and scattering than shorter wavelengths like 630 nm light,⁸¹ longer wavelengths(NIR light, which has a wavelength of 690 nm) can reach deeper into tissues. For instance, 690 nm light can reach bladder tissue about 40% more deeply than 633 nm light.⁸¹ The penetration-depth of light into the skin rises with wavelength until the visible spectrum, after which it diminishes in the infrared region.

Characteristics of Photosensitizers and Light Management: The extent of light penetration is contingent upon the characteristics of the photosensitizer, including its concentration and quantum yield, as well as the irradiance and duration of the light source.⁸¹ Nanoliposomal formulations enhance the stability and photoactivity of photosensitizers such as Benzoporphyrin Derivative (BPD) and Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), however their efficacy remains limited by light penetration.⁸¹ Inglut et al.⁸¹ demonstrated that NIR light (690 nm) activation of Nal-BPD may elicit photobleaching up to 2 cm deep in cerebral tissues, while red light (635 nm) activation of Nanoliposomal Protoporphyrin IX (Nal-PpIX) exhibits minimal photobleaching beyond 1 cm. This underscores that enhanced PDT effects are more attainable with photosensitizers triggered by extended wavelengths.⁸¹

Tissue Heterogeneity and Optical Characteristics: The unique form and heterogeneity of solid tumors pose significant challenges for surgically interstitial PDT and precise dosimetry.⁸² The optical characteristics of living tissues are essential for efficient PDT treatment planning.⁸¹ The features, such as absorption and scattering coefficients, impact light delivery and determine PDT results.⁸¹ The depth of light penetration may be influenced by variables such as skin tone, gender, and the composition of bone and muscle.⁸³

Tissue-Induced Light Diminution: Light penetration into tissues is markedly diminished by absorption and scattering inside the tissue.⁸⁴ Biological tissues inherently absorb light, especially in the visible and ultraviolet spectra, hence reducing the light’s intensity as it penetrates further.⁷⁸ For example, even with light irradiation at 700–800 nm, the penetration depth is just around 5–6 mm.⁸⁵ The optical characteristics of human tissues, including absorption ( $μ_{0}$ ) and scattering ( $μ_{s}^{'}$ ), differ by tissue type, typically ranging from 0.03 to 1.6 cm ⁻¹ for absorption and 1.2 to 40 cm ⁻¹ for scattering.⁸⁴ This attenuation makes the light sub-cytotoxic upon reaching the target tissue, thereby diminishing the overall efficacy of PDT.⁷⁸

Overcoming light penetration limitations with OLED-based PDT devices

OLED-based PDT addresses the limitations of light penetration in human tissue by enabling direct and conformal light delivery, offering uniform illumination, and allowing for tunable wavelengths. These characteristics enable more effective treatment of deeper lesions where traditional PDT methods struggle.

Direct and Conformal Illumination Transmission: The intrinsic flexibility and slim profile of OLEDs facilitate the creation of wearable and implantable devices that may be directly applied to or embedded into target tissues.⁸⁶ This closeness substantially reduces the issue of light attenuation due to absorption and scattering when light traverses tissue.⁷⁸ By situating the light source adjacent to or within the tumor, a enough dosage of light can penetrate to the PS molecules, even in deeply located tumors.

Ultra-thin OLEDs have been implanted in animal models to treat deep organ tumors by providing therapeutic light straight to the tumor location.⁵⁵ This direct application minimizes energy loss over distance, a significant constraint for external light sources.⁷¹ Itazaki et al.⁵⁵ developed a bio-compatible device, for PDT of deep organ cancers. This thin, lightweight device effectively eliminated rat liver tumors via apoptosis with continuous illumination and a photosensitizer, offering a promising new cancer treatment.⁵⁵

Consistent Illumination and Adjustable Wavelengths: OLEDs offer consistent light production throughout an expansive surface area, presenting a significant benefit compared to point sources such as lasers or narrow-beam LEDs. This homogeneous dispersion guarantees uniform activation of the photosensitizer over the whole target region, encompassing irregular tumor margins or superficial infections, thereby optimizing treatment efficiency.⁵⁵ Moreover, the emission wavelength of OLEDs may be meticulously adjusted by modifying the device’s architecture, facilitating the optimization of the light spectrum to align with the absorption peaks of certain PSs. OLEDs can use the greater penetration depth of wavelengths in the red or NIR spectrum (about 600-700 nm) within human tissues. This tunability is essential for addressing the superficial light penetration that constrains traditional PDT therapies, particularly for deeper tissues.⁷¹

Facilitating Extended and Focused Therapy: The reduced operating voltage and lower thermal output of OLED technology provide extended and continuous light emission which is, advantageous for Metronomic PDT (mPDT).^78,87 The mPDT involves using a low level of light for a long time, which can improve treatment results and increase oxygen in the tissue, helping to activate the PS effectively. The ability of OLEDs to be used in flexible patches or devices that can be implanted allows for ongoing, targeted treatment right at the problem area. This continuous, focused strategy, coupled with tailored wavelengths for deeper penetration, enables OLED-based PDT to more effectively address and cure deeper or more widespread diseased regions than conventional approaches that depend on external light sources with restricted penetration depth.^78,87

OLED as biosensor for disease identification

OLED, a subset of solid-state-lighting technology, utilized organic molecules to emit light when an electric current is applied.⁴⁷ Since their emergence in the late 1980s, OLED technology has seen significant improvements in device-stability, efficacy, and luminosity.⁴⁷ The inherent flexibility of the OLED makes them suitable for various applications, including biosensors for cancer detection and other biological monitoring. OLED-based biosensors function by converting biological events into measurable optical signals. For instance, the process by which glucose oxidase enzymatically oxidizes glucose can be detected through photoluminescence, enabling real-time monitoring of glucose levels, valuable for diabetes management and continuous glucose monitoring systems.⁸⁸

Furthermore, OLEDs can serve as both a light source and a detector in biosensing applications, facilitating precise interaction with biological samples and enabling real-time data acquisition. OLED technology has been utilized to detect various disease biomarkers, including antibodies to Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) proteins such as E2, E6, E7, that were relevant to cervical cancer and HPV-associated head, neck-cancer.¹⁹ Additionally, it has been applied in the detection of immunoglobulin A and G antibodies, as well as other dye-conjugated antibodies.⁴¹

The technology has also been explored for detecting biomarkers, that induces Severe-Acute-Respiratory-Syndrome (SARS) using Fluorescence-Linked Immunosorbent Assay.⁴¹ In 2016, Smith et al.⁸⁹ explored a novel biophotonic therapy using flexible red OLEDs to stimulate the vagus-nerve in ear, offering non invasive and devoid of pharmacological intervention alternative to treat persistent illnesses, mental health disorders. The tests suggested the 620 nm OLED array can effectively triggered therapeutic responses in optogenetically modified neural tissue.

The main limitations of research were: 1) For deep brain insertion, current optogenetic treatments need invasive surgery. 2) Devices that stimulate the vagus nerve electrically are big and intrusive. and 3) Transducers that are implanted or transcutaneous lack accuracy for certain nerve branches.

In 2019, Jeon et al.⁹¹ reported that Sandwich-Structure OLEDs (STOLEDs) are applicable in versatile disposable and non-disposable wearable medical devices. Their flexibility enables applications on textile and paper surfaces, and these devices are also foldable, washable, and durable.

In skin treatment, red STOLED light is known to increase cell proliferation, migration, and skin repair, thus enabling advances in phototherapy and wound healing. Thereafter, Neonatal jaundice, a common and potentially dangerous condition in newborns, is typically treated with LED phototherapy, which has drawbacks like dehydration and eye damage.⁹² In 2022, Choi et al.,⁹² designed a textile based, blue color OLED that conforms the body. It was emit light at 470 nm, effectively reduced bilirubin levels in lab tests while operating reliably at low temperatures and voltages, suggested safer, wearable alternative for jaundice treatment. The wavelength and output power were the major limitations.

Furthermore, in 2023, Sim et al.,⁷⁶ developed an OLED catheter for internal Photo-Biomodulation (PBM) to overcome the limitations of light penetration in phototherapeutics. The flexible, biocompatible catheter delivered uniform light via an encapsulated OLED, making it suitable for use in tubular organs. Table 8 demonstrates wavelengths used in various applications of OLED identifing various diseases. Yadav et al.⁹³ introduced a novel method to detect COVID-19 using a flexible OLED and an integrated Organic Photo-Diode (OPD) system. The technique relied on fluorescence detection within a human saliva sample. The blue OLED was emit light at a 470 nm wavelength to excite the sample, while the OPD measured the resultant fluorescence. Two distinct current levels from the OPD (63.5 mA and 37.2 mA) indicate either a COVID-19 infection or a healthy state, respectively. This OLED-OPD integration offers a potentially rapid and flexible diagnostic tool. OLED has the qualities to detect and monitor different biomarkers.¹¹

Table 8.

Applications of OLED in detecting different health problems.

Ref.	Year	Disease Name	OLED Color/	Key Findings
			Wavelength (nm)
Smith et al.⁸⁹	2016	Mental Health Disorder	Red, 620	Red-OLED offers intense light for therapeutic optical stimulation, used to treat vagus nerve branches
Mo et al.⁹⁰	2019	Wound Healing	-, 630	Suggested a new light source for photobiomodulation
Jeon et al.⁹¹	2019	Skin Wound	Red, 629	Promising applications for wearable and disposable photomedical devices
Jeon et al.⁹¹	2019	Skin Wound	Green, 534	Developed a novel transferable OLED (STOLED) in a sandwich structure
Jeon et al.⁹¹	2019	Skin Wound	Blue, 466	High-efficiency performance on various shapes and materials, including textiles and paper
Choi et al.⁹²	2022	Jaundice Treatment	Blue, 470	Provides sufficient light intensity for rigorous jaundice therapy while operating at voltage below 4.0 V
Sim et al.⁷⁶	2023	Diabetes	Red, 700	Developed an OLED catheter for internal Photo-Biomodulation (PBM)
Yadav et al.⁹³	2024	SARS-COV-2 virus	Blue, 470-590	Proposed fluorescence-based method for COVID-19 detection.

The OLEDs have been explored for their potential in fluorescence imaging and photoacoustic imaging, which can offer significant insights into the tumor identification and survelliance of mallignancy. Many researchers have worked on cancer biomarkers used for various health monitoring system, few are depicted in the Table 9.

Table 9.

Various biomarkers used in health monitoring system along with detection limit.

Year	Ref.	Biomarker	Disease Type	Detection Limit
2011	Nakajima et al.⁹⁴	Immunoglobulin A (IgA)	Stress in Human	16.5 ng/mL
2014	Prabowo et al.⁹⁵	-	Autoimmune Disease	40.6 pg/mL
2016	Katchman et al.¹⁹	HPV16	Head, Neck or Cervical Cancer	10 pg/mL
2016	FAN et al.⁶⁷	Carcino-Embryonic Antigen (CEA)	Tumor Marker	10 ng L $^{- 1}$
2022	Lian et al.⁴¹	Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2	SARS-CoV-2 Infection	–

The OLED may be used for cancer detection based on the Fluorescence Sensing System. A fluorescence sensing system compares the fluorescence intensity of a sample against a reference sample.⁴⁹ First, the system measures the reference sample’s fluorescence using OLED excitation and a photodiode.⁹⁶ Then, the sample containing the target analyte is measured using the same setup. The existence of the target analyte is ascertained by analyzing the disparity in fluorescence signals between the reference and sample. OLEDs, composed several thin organic layers between two electrodes, show promise in PDT.⁴

In OLED technology by investigating innovative materials and designs for cancer detection and other diseases, researchers may develop a new non-invasive method that leads to the development of OLED further from display to sensors.⁴⁹

HPV16 Protein Detection

Cancer biomarkers that may be detected with OLED technology include antibodies directed against the E2, E6, E7 proteins of HPV-16.¹⁹ These circulating biomarkers are important for the diagnosis of cervical cancers; a research showed that they may be detected using flat-panel OLED technique in conjunction accompained by protein-microarray methods.¹⁹ This demonstrates the efficacy of OLED-based diagnostics in early cancer detection, as the multiplexed diagnosis of these antibodies is accomplished with clinical-level sensitivity.

IgG Antibodies Against Virus Antigens

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody detection to various viral antigens utilizing organic light-emitting diode technology is another important example. The Detection limits for human IgG can be as-low-as 10-pg/mL, this method has shown exceptional sensitivity when applied to patient blood samples.¹⁹ The capacity to conduct multiplexed studies helps in giving full diagnostic profiles,¹⁹ and this high sensitivity is critical for detecting virally-linked malignancies.

New Signals in Fluid Biopsies

Recent developments have shown that Organic Light-Emitting Diode Technology (OLED) has the ability to identify new biomarkers in liquid biopsies, including CTCs and circulating Tumor DNA (cTDNA).⁹⁷ Achieving non-invasive cancer diagnostics relies heavily on these biomarkers, which enable continuous tracking of tumor dynamics and treatment effectiveness. These new biomarkers have the potential to transform personalized cancer treatment, and OLED-based detection technologies provide a flexible framework for making them more sensitive.

AFP Alpha-Fetoprotein

When it comes to Hepato-Cellular Carcinoma (HCC), one of the well-established tumor markers that may be detected using optical, electrochemical, and mass-based biosensors for monitoring of Alpha-Feto-Protein (AFP).⁹⁸

Carcinoembryonic Antigen

Another biomarker that may be identified with OLED technology is Carcino-Embryonic Antigen (CEA), which has been the subject of much research for a number of malignancies, including colorectal and breast cancers.⁶⁷ It has been used for dtection the method may be floureRapid and sensitive detection of CEA levels in blood samples may be achieved with the integration of OLEDs in sensing devices.⁶⁷ This aids in diagnosis and the tracking of therapy responses. When used in this way, the small size and high sensitivity of OLEDs greatly aid in the development of efficient cancer management plans. The Figure 7 is highlighting the basic components for detecting breast cancer. Here, OLED is used as Source (which is used to excite light to patient sample and OPD as detector (which detects the extracted emission wavelength from sample of the patient. Generally, the fluorescence and phosphorescence properties of OLED may be used for the light excitation at source. By OLED-OPD integartion and measuring the current or calculating wavelength, we may detect whether person is suffering from breast cancer or not.

Figure 7.

Process Flow of Breast Cancer Detection using OLED-OPD Integration. Here, OLED used as Source; Excite Light to Patient Sample and OPD as Detector; Detects the Extracted Emission Wavelength from Patient Sample.

Earlier in 2005, Hofmann et al.¹⁰¹ invented a microchip to identification for urinary Human-Serum-Albumin (HSA) using thin film OLED as a source of excitation for detecting fluorescence. OLED emitted at 540 nm, excited the albumin blue 580 complex, which emitted 620 nm. They demonstrated that this microchip can detect HSA concentration down-to 10 mg/L, which is sensitive enough for Micro-Albuminuria (MAU) determination.

In 2011, Nakajima et al.,⁹⁴ created a fluorescence-detection systems for micro-fluidic devices using an OLED as source of light and a CCD as the photodetector. They used this system in a microfluidic device to perform an enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay to detect Immunoglobulin-A (IgA). The system achieved 16.5 ng/mL limit of detection for IgA, that was sufficient to evaluating stress, and it reduced analysis time and reagent/sample usage compared to traditional methods. Table 10 illustrates the comparison of OLED biosensors with established cancer detection techniques like ELISA, PCR and imaging-based modalities.

Table 10.

Comparison of OLED biosensors with established cancer detection techniques.

Parameter	OLED Biosensor	Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)	Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)	Imaging-based Modalities
Sensitivity	Identifies biomarker with clinical-grade sensitivity,¹⁹ detection criteria for human IgG in the 10-pg/mL range	High-Sensitivity in detection of protein¹⁹	Extremely sensitive to genetic mutations, nucleic acid⁹⁹	Less efficacious, resolution confined, Good for identify tumor-size¹⁰⁰
Specificity	Exhibited comparable specificity to ELISA in serum detection	High specificity caused by antibody-antigen- interactions	High specificity by sequence-specific-amplification⁹⁹	Moderate-specificity, contingent upon imaging-contrast, targeted-biomarkers¹⁰⁰
Accuracy	Comparable accuracy to ELISA for serum identification biomarkers	High accuracy in protein quantification	High-precision in-detection, measurement of-nucleic-acid-mutations⁹⁹	Varying accuracy, Impacted by tumor dimensions, tissue heterogeneity¹⁰⁰
Merits	Mobile, Concise, Economical-substrate Simultaneous detection of several biomarkers and quantitative	Standardized laboratory standards, Extensively verified tests	Precise-genetic assay, Identifies oncogene mutations, Beneficial for early identification⁹⁹	Non-invasive, Illustrates tumor location, dimension¹⁰⁰
Demerits	Limited prevalence, Sensitivity inferior than PCR, Need practicing for clinical application	Lab-dependent, time-intensive, Not-multiplexed, Restricted to protein identification	Needs DNA/RNA extraction, costly, No real-time monitoring⁹⁹	Reduced sensitivity for first biomarkers, Unable-to immediately identify molecular alteration¹⁰⁰

In 2016, FAN et al.,⁶⁷ employed a portable device, Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) for rapid, on-site tumor marker detection. The device, combined with micro-fluidic-paper-based system demonstrated enhanced sensitivity and minimal detection threshold.⁶⁷ This system allows for the automatic calculation of Carcino-Embryonic Antigen (CEA) concentration based on antibody-antigen binding.⁶⁷

In 2014, Prabowo et al.⁹⁵ developed an OLED based movable Surface-Plasmon-Resonance (SPR) sensor, enhanced by Brightness Enhancements Film (BEF) and a Giant Birefringences Optical (GBO) for increased intensity of light and polarization. Hence, the sensor achieved the detection limit RIU $3.2 \times 10^{- 6}$ with Au / Ag sensing layers and $40.6 \,pg/mL$ for mouse-IgG protein.⁹⁵

Further in 2022, Lian et al.,⁴¹ a Fluorescence Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay was developed for point-of-care testing (POCT). The system used Phyco-Erythrin (PE) as a fluorescent dye and detects antibodies to SARS CoV2, in human-serum. The researcher investigated OLED design to diminish background noise and improve sensitivity for immunodiagnostics.⁴¹ Table 11 depicts the comparative analysis of different researches on biosensors.

Table 11.

Comparative analysis of various studies on different biosensors in terms of method used, sample type, sensitivity, selectivity, and accuracy.

Author’s	Biosensor Type	Method	Sample	Sensitivity	Specificity	Accuracy
and Year	Cancer Detection Type	Used
Wan et al.¹⁰² 2024	Field-Effect Transistor, Detection of HER2, CA15-3	Non-invasive	Saliva	70/dec HER2	30/dec CA15-3	LOD-1fg/mL
Khodadoust et al.¹⁰³ 2023	Electrochemical, Lung Cancer	MB-HCP, Fc-AP-21	Plasma	0.89 fM - miRNA-141, 1.24 fM - miRNA-21	–	–
Leemans et al.¹⁰⁴ 2023	Identification of BC VOCs	–	Sweat	1.0	0.8	F1-score: 0.93
Attia et al.¹⁰⁵ 2022	Optical, Liver Cancer	Fluorescence-intensity	–	0.1 ng/mL	1250 ng/m	–
Szymanska et al.¹⁰⁶ 2020	Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA), Blood Cancer	Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging (SPRi) Immunosensor	–	0.12 ng mL⁻¹	–	2–16%
Hakimian¹⁰⁷ 2020	Electrochemical, MiRNA-155 detection	–	Serum	Ultrasensitive	–	2 $\times$ 10⁻²⁰, 2 $\times$ 10⁻¹² mol
Katchman et al.¹⁹ 2016	OLED Technology with Protein Microarray, Cervical, Head, Neck Cancers (HPV16 proteins E2, E6, E7)	High-density fluorescent, programmable, multiplexed biorecognition	Serum	10 pg/mL for human IgG	–	–
Marcello et al.⁵² 2013	OLED-based Biochip for Protein Microarray, Immune-Detection of Human Antigens	Fluorophore-conjugated antibody	–	Good Sensitivity	Good Specificity	–
Wei et al.¹⁰⁸ 2009	Electrochemical Detection of IL8 mRNA/protein	Electrochemical (EC) Sensor	Saliva	LOD: 3.9 fM (mRNA)	-	90%, 7.4-pg/mL

Lian et al.⁵⁷ created a small DNA detecting device labeled with dye, OLEDs utilized as source of excitation. The apparatus comprises an OLED light source, an excitation filter, and an emission filter.⁵⁷ OLED biosensors have remarkable sensitivity, facilitating the identification of cancer biomarkers. Hence, OLED-based sensors can be designed to detect key cancer biomarkers, leveraging the optical properties of OLEDs to enhance diagnostic accuracy and efficiency.

Multiplexed detection techniques of OLED-based biosensor

A single OLED device can be configured to detect multiple types of cancers simultaneously through multiplexing techniques.¹⁹ This is accomplished by combining several OLEDs in a flat-panel display array with thin film photodiodes, where each OLED/photodiode pair is linked to a particular biomarker identification site, allowing high-density fluorescence detection of different biomarkers in a single patient sample.¹⁹ The incorporation of programmable high-density fluorescent protein microarrays facilitates the concurrent examination of many circulating cancer indicators.¹⁹ Multiplexing in biosensors, particularly those utilizing OLED technology, enables the concurrent detection of numerous biomarkers.¹⁹ Because OLEDs do not require epitaxial growth, it is possible to design adjacent color pixels on the same substrate, allowing for the excitation of several dyes for biosensing.⁵⁷ A variety of solutions are utilized to accomplish multiplexing in biosensors i.e., time-division, frequency division, spatial, barcode multiplexing techniques. For OLED-based systems, spatial multiplexing may be achieved by employing an array of OLED pixels combined with sensing element.¹⁰⁹

The techniques illustrated in Table 12 facilitates the development of a unified OLED biosensor platform capable of quickly executing multiplexed cancer detection, providing benefits in sensitivity, specificity, cost-effectiveness, and compactness relative to traditional approaches.^19,110 Moreover, forthcoming advancements seek the monolithic integration of OLEDs and organic photodetectors on a singular substrate, perhaps facilitated by inkjet printing, resulting in compact, flexible, and entirely organic integrated sensor platforms.¹⁹

Table 12.

Different multiplexing techniques used in various applications of OLED biosensor.

Multiplexing Technique	Application	Key Findings
Multiple-Recognition Elements	Detection of Carcino-Embryonic Antigen (CEA), Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP), Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) with high sensitivity and specificity¹¹⁰	Multiple indicators in blood utilizing functional Liquid-Crystal (LC) Sensors facilitated by Target-Induced-Dissociation (TID) of aptamer¹¹⁰
Combines Programmable High-Density Fluorescent Protein Microarray with OLED Display Array¹⁹	Protein microarrays for the detection of HPV antibodies¹⁹	High-density sensor arrays provide localized analyte detection¹⁹
Microfluidic Integration	Multiplexed-EC immunoassays utilizing microfluidics¹¹¹	Fluid channels regulate the flow of samples and reagents for different tests¹¹¹
Nano-material-Facilitated Detection	Applications of Gold-Nanoparticles (AuNPs) in biosensors¹¹²	Nanoparticles improved specificity, sensitivity, and multiplexing potential¹¹²

Comparative analysis of OLED-based detection technique with gold standard techniques

Currently, The gold standard for ovarian cancer diagnosis is based on a histopathology examination. The current gold standard for first screening is a combination of a Trans-Vaginal Ultrasound (TVUS), a CA-125 blood test.¹¹³ As for determining the full scope of the disease, surgical staging is still considered the gold standard. Additional comprehensive clinical data and comparisons with gold standard procedures are clearly required, although fluorescence-based technologies, especially those OLEDs, demonstrate promise for non-invasive and fast detection.^36,114 Biomarker assessment, mammography, colposcopy, and computed tomography scans are some of the current cancer diagnostic tools; nevertheless, they can be site-specific, invasive, and costly.³⁶

A thorough evaluation of fluorescent urine analysis’s performance should be conducted in comparison to these well-established methods, even if it may provide a straightforward, general, and non-invasive approach.³⁶ Although considering limitations, the sensitivity of ELISA could vary depending on the type and reagents of the test, and certain PCR detection techniques may have limited specificity due to contamination or illegal transcription.⁴¹ It is critical to overcome these constraints by making sure that the upcoming fluorescence-based technologies deliver equivalent or better performance.⁴¹

Moreover, more work is required to improve the sensitivity of OLED-based FLISA, decrease the amount of reagents needed, and allow multiplexed testing, but it has the potential to identify antibodies at concentrations far lower than current lateral flow tests.⁴¹ The accuracy of the sensing data might be compromised by problems such as excessive OLED leakage light, especially when the analyte concentration is low.⁴¹

Disease detection using cutting-edge diagnostic methods like quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and Enzyme-Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay (ELISA) is frequently costly, arduous and protracted.⁵⁷ This indicates that it is not accessible in primary care. The disparity in healthcare resources between developed and developing nations restricts access to modern diagnostics for individuals in underdeveloped countries.⁵⁷ Consequently, it is advantageous to utilize technologies that are cost-effective to manufacture and implement, portable, provide prompt feedback on outcomes, while preserving the device’s sensitivity and robustness without compromise.⁵⁷

The comparative analysis of OLED-based detection techniques against gold-standard techniques is illustrated in Table 13. OLEDs are being investigated for fluorescence detection in urine, specifically for ovarian cancer⁴⁹; however, no direct comparisons with biopsy for cancer diagnosis have been identified.⁴⁹

Table 13.

Comparison of OLED-based cancer detection techniques with gold standard methods, including merits and demerits of used techniques.

Method	Detection Principle	Merits	Demerits	Ref.
OLED-based Biosensor: Fluorescence-based, ECL	Electroluminescence response to cancer biomarkers (e.g., PSA, HER2)	High sensitivity, less power, real-time detection	Under development, lower specificity in complex matrices	Lee and Kim,¹¹⁵Park and Choi,¹¹⁶Zhou and Wang¹¹⁷
Gold Standard: Biopsy	Tissue-Histological Examination	Cellular-level analysis, definitive diagnosis	Invasive, lengthy process, complicated	Kim and Patel¹¹⁸
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)	Magnetic field and radio waves to image soft tissue	Non-invasive, excellent soft tissue contrast	Expensive, time-intensive, limited portability	Smith and Nguyen¹¹⁹
Computed Tomography (CT)	X-ray cross-sectional imaging	Fast, good resolution	Radiation exposure, poor soft tissue contrast	Johnson and Becker¹²⁰
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)	Radioactive tracer uptake by cancerous cells	Functional imaging, detects metastases	Expensive, radiation dose, poor spatial resolution	Huang and Phelps¹²¹
Immuno-Histo-Chemistry (IHC)	Antibody binding to cancer-specific antigens	Specific molecular targeting, standard in pathology	Requires biopsy, not real-time, labor-intensive	Elston and Ellis¹²²

Conclusion

This paper covers progress in cancer diagnosis and therapy utilizing OLED-based technologies, focusing on biosensor architecture, components, and the efficacy for organic- semiconductors in cancer detection. OLED application used in ovarian and skin cancer detection and photodynamic therapy, highlight their adaptability and promise to improve diagnostic accuracy. The use of OLEDs as biomarkers to identify various medical conditions demonstrates their use beyond cancer detection, as they provide greater sensitivity, real-time monitoring, and non-invasive diagnostic capabilities.

OLED-based biosensors have great potential for early cancer diagnosis, operating as light sources and detectors for non-invasive monitoring of cancer biomarkers, enhancing accuracy and efficiency when compared to traditional diagnostic approaches. The sensitive, flexibility, low-power consumption of OLEDs allow for the development of portable, cost-effective tools suitable for diagnostics and widespread screening, with future research focusing on optimizing OLED technology for various tumor types and investigating novel applications in early cancer detection to improve survival rates.

Moreover, the use of OLEDs enables the advancement of portable and economical diagnostic instruments, thereby increasing accessibility to essential healthcare services worldwide. Subsequent investigations ought to concentrate on improving OLED technology for various tumor types and exploring novel applications in early cancer detection, ultimately shaping the landscape of cancer diagnostics and improving survival rates through timely intervention.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Kanchan Sharma

Brijesh Kumar

Compliance with ethical standards

The author declares that all procedures followed were in accordance with ethical standards.

Consent to Participate

The author declares their consent to participate in this research article.

Consent for Publication

The author declares their consent for publication of the article on acceptance.

Author Contribution

Authors have made substantial contributions to the conception and design or acquisition of data, analysis, and interpretation of data; have been involved in drafting the manuscript or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and have given final approval of the version to be published. The author has participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content. The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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