Subjective Well-Being of Angolan Students in Portugal

Abstract

This study examined the subjective well-being (SWB) of international students. International students represent one of the biggest and most relevant sojourners groups. The sample included 204 Angolan international students who attended Portuguese universities and a control group of native-born Portuguese students. Using quantitative survey research methods, the relative strengths of demographic, acculturation, and sociocultural adaptation factors in predicting two indicators of SWB (overall well-being and academic satisfaction) were explored. Angolan students revealed lower levels of well-being and higher levels of academic satisfaction than Portuguese students. As expected, language proficiency, interaction with conationals, ethnic identity, and sociocultural adaptation were significantly correlated with SWB. In addition, results indicated that acculturation and sociocultural adaptation variables accounted for a larger proportion of explained variance in SWB than demographic variables. Academic satisfaction predicted well-being beyond demographic, acculturation, and sociocultural factors. Some implications of the findings for improving SWB of international students and future research are discussed.

Keywords

academic satisfaction adaptation international students migrations well-being

In the last few years, there was a rapid increase in international student migration. This study explored the levels and the factors associated with subjective well-being (SWB) of Angolan students enrolled in Portuguese Universities. This field is of substantial applied importance. Diener (1995) argued that

when policy makers seek to understand how to improve the quality of life, measures of SWB are necessary to complement more objective measures such as economic indices. Indeed, measures of happiness and life satisfaction are now collected in highly industrialized nations to monitor the well-being of these societies. If only social indicators are considered (e.g., per capita income and crime rates), valuable information is lost about how people weigh and react to their life circumstances. (p. 319)

SWB constitutes a core acculturation outcome.

Acculturation concerns the cultural and psychological changes that arise following the contact between groups and individuals from different cultural backgrounds (Berry, 1997; Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). In the acculturation literature, sojourners are defined as “people who travel internationally to achieve a particular goal or objective with the expectation that they will return to their country of origin after the purpose of their travel has been achieved” (Safdar & Berno, 2016, p. 173). International students represent one of the biggest and most relevant sojourner groups. In 2015, there were 4.6 million postsecondary international students around the globe (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2017).

International students contribute to the income of academic institutions as well as to the economies of their sojourn societies. There are also other significant potential benefits: “broadening of one’s wold-view, greater cultural sensitivity, increased creativity and complex thinking, the development of new neural networks, and better career outcomes” (Basow & Gaugler, 2017, p. 39). In a recent study it was found that living abroad can prompt self-reflection that helps students better understand their own motivation, personalities, and weaknesses (Adam, Obodaru, Lu, Maddux, & Galinsky, 2018). However, the benefits of study abroad depend on the students’ positive adjustment in the new cultural context. Common reasons for international students to succeed academically tend to be related to positive adjustment (Duru & Poyrazli, 2011).

Multiple challenges may be experienced by international students as the result of living and studying abroad, such as language barriers, cultural differences, discrimination, loneliness, loss of social support, financial difficulties, psychological maladjustment, and differences in study techniques, test taking, or classroom instruction (Aloyo & Wentzel, 2011; Barrette, Bourhis, Personnaz, & Personnaz, 2004; Duru & Poyrazli, 2011; Sawir, Margiinson, Deumert, Nyland, & Ramia, 2008; Scott, Safdar, Trilokekar, & El Masri, 2015; Wilks & Neto, 2016). These challenges affect their adaptation in the new cultural setting.

The adaptation of newcomers has been divided into two domains: sociocultural (behavioral) adaptation and psychological (emotional/affective) adaptation (Searle & Ward, 1990). Sociocultural adaptation concerns the ability to “fit in” with the society of sojourn (Ward & Kennedy, 1994). Typically, this is assessed by the degree of difficulty students have with diverse aspects of living in a new country. On the contrary, psychological adaptation “refers to how comfortable and happy a person feels with respect to being into the new culture, or anxious and out of place” (Demes & Geeraert, 2014, p. 91). Researchers measure psychological adaptation through well-being or psychological distress. Therefore, SWB may be used as indicator of psychological adaptation. This study examines the SWB of Angolan students in Portugal.

SWB

This investigation is focused on positive mental health outcomes, namely, in SWB—a growing field in psychology (Diener, 2013). SWB is related to positive life outcomes such as health (Diener & Chan, 2011), income (Howell & Howell, 2008), better workplace performance (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005), and education (del Mar Salinas-Jiménez, Artés, & Salinas-Jiménez, 2011).

SWB can be defined as the way we think and feel about ourselves (Diener, 2006). Along this line, Diener’s (e.g., Diener, 2013) model of SWB comprises three components: satisfaction with life, positive affect, and (absence of) negative affect. Satisfaction with life is a cognitive judgment of one’s life satisfaction, either globally or with respect to specific life domains. In this study, we consider global life satisfaction and one’s life satisfaction domain, satisfaction with academic life.

Satisfaction with life is especially useful in the study of cultural variation (Diener & Suh, 2000). Shin and Johnson (1978) defined satisfaction with life as a “global assessment of a person’s quality of life according to chosen criteria” (p. 478). Academic life satisfaction is a specific domain satisfaction (Neto & Wilks, 2017) with importance for the field of education (Lent, Singley, Sheu, Schmidt, & Schmidt, 2007; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1990). Satisfaction with academic life is a relevant aspect of psychological adaptation for international students, as well as dealing with academic demands. Past investigation demonstrated that satisfaction with life domains was related to well-being (Neto & Pinto, 2015; Pavot & Diener, 2008; Ruiz et al., 2009).

Whereas satisfaction with life concerns the cognitive-judgmental aspect of SWB, positive and negative affect refer to the affective components of SWB. Positive affect includes pleasant moods and emotions such as joy and contentment. Negative affect denotes unpleasant moods and emotions such as sadness and anxiety (Diener, 2006). People who experience more positive affect than negative affect are regarded as having higher SWB.

Angolan Students in Portugal

Portugal has been a sojourn country for an increasing number of international students. During the 2015-2016 academic year, 37,559 international students in Portugal represented 10.5% of the higher education student enrollment, with a greater prevalence being women (55.0%;Direção-Geral de Estatísticas da Educação e Ciência, 2016). About half of them were from Portuguese-speaking countries (49.9%), and about one third (34.9%) from the European Union. The most representative countries were as follows: Brazil (26.9%), Angola (9.8%), Spain (8.5%), Cape Verde (6.9%), and Italy (5.9%). Angolan students were the second most numerous, with 3,697 individuals enrolled in higher education.

Motivations to study abroad are a core factor influencing students’ psychological adaptation and the development of cross-cultural skills (Chirkov, Vansteenkiste, Tao, & Lynch, 2007; Kitsantas, 2004). Several factors motivated Angolan international students to study in Portuguese higher education institutions: the common language, relatives and friends already living in Portugal, international agreements, the standard of living, quality of teaching, and the possibility of greater job opportunities (Mourato, 2011). Most Angolan students consider their sojourn to be temporary (António, 2013).

The Present Study

The goals of this investigation were fivefold. The first goal of this study is to compare the levels of SWB in the international student sample with a nonimmigrant sample. For the aims of this research, international student is defined as someone pursing “degree mobility,” whereby he or she follows an entire degree program (either undergraduate or postgraduate) in a foreign country. To examine the SWB of international students, we used concepts and measures of satisfaction with life, positive affect, negative affect, and satisfaction with academic life. Indicators of SWB are widely used in epidemiological research, not only in the general population, but also with migrants (Berry & Hou, 2016; Neto & Neto, 2017).

Previous research comparing immigrant samples with nonimmigrant samples is mixed. For example, in Canada, an immigrant sample revealed greater life satisfaction and mental health than a nonimmigrant sample (Berry & Hou, 2016). This finding is consonant with investigations that have shown what has become called the “healthy immigrant effect” or the “immigrant paradox” (McDonald & Kennedy, 2004). It consists of the counterintuitive finding that migrants tend to show better adaptation outcomes than their national peers despite poorer socioeconomic status (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006). A study in Europe found little evidence for this “healthy immigrant effect” (Sam, Vedder, Liebkind, Neto, & Virta, 2008).

However, previous research also suggests the idea that international students have more adjustment problems than domestic counterparts (Kilinc & Granello, 2003). For example, in Portugal, an immigrant sample reported lower levels of well-being and higher levels of loneliness than a nonimmigrant sample (Neto & Wilks, 2017).

The second goal is to explore the relationship between SWB and acculturation factors. Language proficiency, social interactions, and cultural identity are key constructs for the acculturation process (Sam & Berry, 2016). Becoming fully comfortable with the language of the host society and its nuances constitutes an important factor in the adaptation to a new culture for international students. In fact, language barriers have a negative effect on the academic performance of international students (O’Reilly, Ryan, & Hickey, 2010). For example, Yeh and Inose (2003) showed that self-reported English fluency serves as a predictor of acculturative stress among international students. Hence, in light of this past investigation, it is also predicted that there will be a positive relation between SWB and Portuguese language proficiency.

Social interaction with people of the sojourn society is important. International students studying in Germany who benefited most from their experience built personal relationships with locals (Zimmermann & Neyer, 2013). International students with more individuals from the sojourn society in their social network were more satisfied and content (Hendrickson, Rosen, & Aune, 2011). Hence, it is expected that there will be a positive relation between SWB and out-group interaction and in-group interaction.

Cultural identity includes both ethnic and national identity (Phinney, 2003). Ethnic identity and identification with the larger society are two separate constructs and, this being the case, it is possible to be identified with both groups. In fact, research findings show that strong identification with both groups can be considered as resources for psychological adaptation. In line with research on cross-cultural transitions and mental health (Berry et al., 2006), a positive relationship between SWB and psychological identification with home and host cultures is expected.

The third goal is to examine the relationship between SWB and sociocultural adaptation, framed in terms of a culture-learning perspective (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). Psychological adaptation and sociocultural adaptation are both adaptive outcomes of the acculturation process. There is evidence that these two kinds of adaptation are interrelated (Ward, Stuart, & Kus, 2011). For example, Ward and Kennedy (1999) found a positive correlation between psychological adaptation and sociocultural adaptation. Therefore, as we use SWB as an indicator of psychological adaptation in the current study, it is expected to find a positive relation between SWB and sociocultural adaptation.

The fourth goal is to compare the variance, accounting for demographic and psychosocial factors. Research has shown that demographic factors tend to explain a modest amount of variance in SWB (Diener, 1984; Lent, 2004; Neto, 2001). For instance, according to a review of 141 empirical studies on life satisfaction, the relationship between demographic factors and life satisfaction is weak and these variables contribute poorly to the prediction of life satisfaction (Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009). Hence, it is expected to find a higher percentage of the variance in SWB with acculturation and adaptation factors than with demographic factors.

The fifth goal is to explore the relationship between general well-being and academic satisfaction. Studies have indicated that life satisfaction is positively associated with satisfaction in all domains (Rojas, 2006; Ruiz et al., 2009). However, not all correlations are equally important. For international students, a strong relationship can be expected between well-being and academic satisfaction. We will also be interested in determining whether academic satisfaction has the power to predict well-being over and above what could be better explained by demographic, acculturation, and sociocultural adaptation factors.

Specifically, based on the above review, this study tested five hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): It is expected that Angolan students would reveal lower levels of global well-being and academic satisfaction than national students.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): It is expected that acculturation factors such as Portuguese language proficiency, in-group interactions, out-group interactions, ethnic identity, and national identity would be positively and significantly correlated with global well-being and academic satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): It is hypothesized that sociocultural adaptation would be positively and significantly correlated with global well-being and academic satisfaction.

Hypothesis 4 (H4): It is hypothesized that acculturation and sociocultural adaptation factors would account for a larger proportion of the explained variance in global well-being and academic satisfaction than demographic factors.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): It is hypothesized that academic satisfaction would predict global well-being, beyond demographic, acculturation, and sociocultural factors.

Method

Participants

A total of 204 Angolan international students participated in this study (56% females). The age of the participants ranged from 18 to 44 years (M = 26.96; SD = 5.81). All participants had been born in Angola and had Angolan nationality. The mean age of arrival was 19.88 years (SD = 4.92), and the mean duration of residence in Portugal was 7.08 years (SD = 4.68). As regards their financial situation, 75% reported to be in a good situation and 25% in a difficult situation.

For the purpose of comparing levels of SWB between international and national students, 265 Portuguese students (54% females and 46% males; mean age = 21.13 years, SD = 3.55) were surveyed in the same universities where the Angolans were studying. The proportion of men to women among international students and national students was not significantly different, χ²(1, 468) = .12, p = .73. The mean age of both samples (international students and national students) differed significantly, F(1, 467) = 181.13, p < .001. Therefore, age was utilized as a covariate.

Materials

Beyond the demographic questions (age, gender, country of birth, period of residence, and financial situation), the questionnaire for this study included the following materials.

Language proficiency

Four questions assessed the students’ ability to understand, speak, read, and write the Portuguese language, such as “How well do you speak Portuguese?” (Berry et al., 2006; Neto, 2002). Answers were given on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very well). In the current study, α = .72.

In-group and out-group social interaction

In-group social interaction was assessed using two items about the frequency of interaction with Angolans, for example, “How often do you meet Angolans?” (Cronbach’s α = .61). Out-group social interaction was reported on a similar scale with two items assessing the frequency of interaction with Portuguese. Response options ranged from almost never (1) to almost always (5) (Cronbach’s α = .97).

Cultural identity

Angolan identity (assessing minority identity) was evaluated using seven items, such as “I feel I am part of Angolan culture,” and “Being part of Angolan culture is embarrassing to me” (reversed in scoring). Responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In the current study, α = .76. Portuguese identity (assessing majority identity) was evaluated using three items, such as “I am proud of being Portuguese.” In the current study, α = .78.

Sociocultural adaptation

The sociocultural adaptation scale (SCAS-R) was used to measure the level of difficulty in managing daily social situations (Wilson, 2013). The SCAS-R contains 21 items, such as “Obtaining community services I require” and “Managing my academic responsibilities.” Participants indicated the amount of competence experienced in each of the 21 areas. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all competent) to 5 (extremely competent). The sociocultural scale produced an alpha coefficient of .87 in the present sample.

Well-being

To assess well-being, participants completed (a) the satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Neto, 1993) and (b) the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Simões, 1993; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). In the current study, the alpha coefficients for the life satisfaction, positive affect and negative affect scales were .86, .76, and .85, respectively. Given that life satisfaction and affect are the cognitive and emotional components of SWB, the average of life satisfaction and affect balance (positive affect minus negative affect) were calculated. The same method has been used for obtaining an aggregate SWB score (e. g., Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Zhang, Howell, & Stolarski, 2013).

Satisfaction with academic life

The satisfaction with academic life scale was developed by Vallerand and Bissonnette (1990) to measure a global and subjective assessment of quality of life in education. This scale includes five items. An example is “In most ways my academic life is close to my ideal.” Responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The reliability and the validity of this scale have been demonstrated (Neto & Wilks, 2017; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1990). In the current study, α = .82.

Whereas Angolan students completed all these measures, Portuguese students were asked to complete only the well-being and academic satisfaction scales, as well as the demographic questions.

Procedure

Two research assistants recruited participants on the campuses of several universities across the country: Aveiro, Porto, Coimbra, and Lisbon. In each university was collected about 25% of the sample and a similar number of women and men. The students were approached in places where they meet: associations and clubs. In addition, participants were recruited using the snowball method (acquaintances and friends of the students). Potential participants were invited to participate in a study about student adaptation. Once participation had been agreed on, students gave information consent. They then completed a paper-and-pencil survey in a quiet place in the presence of a research assistant. The questionnaire was in Portuguese (the official language of Angola). All questionnaires were anonymous. Participants were not remunerated for participating in the research. The respondents’ rate was about 95%.

Data Analysis

First, internal consistency of all measures was analyzed using the Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient. Then analysis of variance was utilized to analyze group differences and, in particular, to test H1. Next, Pearson correlation coefficients were performed to examine the nature and significance of the relationship between the research measures. In particular, a Pearson product-moment correlational analysis was conducted to test H2 and H3. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the relative strength of the measures in predicting academic satisfaction and well-being. The hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to test H4 and H5. IBM SPSS statistical software (Version 24.0) and a significance level (p) of less than .05 were used for all of the statistical analyses.

Given the methodological options made, the results of this investigation should be considered in light of its limitations. First, given the relatively limited sample size, we are not sure whether current findings may be generalized to a wider international student experience in Portugal. Second, we did not focus on different levels of postsecondary education where there may be differences in SWB. Third, this cross-sectional study does not allow any inferences of causal relationships.

Results

Descriptive statistics of the scales used in this study are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Self-Reported Scales Used in This Study Among International Students.

	Number of items	Range	M	SD
Satisfaction with life	5	1-7	5.22	1.00
Positive affect	11	1-5	3.51	0.47
Negative affect	11	1-5	3.27	0.74
Satisfaction with academic life	5	1-7	4.93	0.98
Language proficiency	4	1-5	4.49	0.44
In-group interaction	2	1-5	3.83	0.78
Out-group interaction	2	1-5	3.69	0.65
Ethnic identity	7	1-5	3.20	0.96
National identity	3	1-5	3.20	0.96
Sociocultural identity	21	1-5	3.54	0.50

Group Differences

To test H1 univariate analysis of covariances (ANCOVAs; with age covaried) for each dependent variable across mobility were conducted. The ANCOVA of well-being displayed that the effect of mobility was significant, F(1, 467) = 9.20, p < .01, η² = .022. Results suggest that international students (M = 2.73; SD = .53) reported lower levels of well-being than the national students (M = 3.07; SD = .80).

The ANCOVA of academic satisfaction showed that the effect of mobility was also significant, F(1, 467) = 13.74, p < .001, η² = .029. However, the results revealed that international students (M = 4.93; SD = .98) reported higher levels of academic satisfaction than the national students (M = 4.61; SD = .98). Therefore, the expectation that Angolan students would reveal lower levels of global well-being and academic satisfaction than national students (H1) was partially supported.

Correlational Analyses

A correlation matrix is shown in Table 2. As regards the relationship between SWB criteria, well-being was positively correlated with academic satisfaction (r = .64, p < .001). As expected, the SWB variables correlated significantly with most of the predictor variables. Well-being was positively correlated with Portuguese language proficiency (r = .30, p < .001), interactions with people of the home culture (r = .16, p < .05), ethnic identity (r = .34, p < .001), and sociocultural adaptation (r = .54, p < .001). Angolan students who reported higher levels of well-being also reported higher levels of Portuguese language proficiency, in-group interactions, ethnic identity, and sociocultural adaptation. Out-group interactions and national identity were not significantly correlated with well-being. On the contrary, academic satisfaction correlated positively with Portuguese language proficiency (r = .27, p < .001), interactions with people of the home culture (r = .24, p < .01), interactions with people of the host culture (r = .15, p < .05), ethnic identity (r = .20, p < .01), and sociocultural adaptation (r = .50, p < .001). Angolan students who reported higher levels of academic satisfaction also reported higher levels of Portuguese language proficiency, in-group interactions, out-group interactions, ethnic identity, and sociocultural adaptation. Only national identity was not significantly correlated with academic satisfaction.

Table 2.

Intercorrelations of Predictors and Criterion Variables Among International Students.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Well-being	—
2. Satisfaction with academic life	.64***	(.82)
3. Language proficiency	.30***	.27***	(.72)
4. In-group interactions	.16*	.24**	.40***	(.61)
5. Out-group interactions	−.09	.15*	.16*	.44***	(.97)
6. Ethnic identity	.34***	.20**	.14*	−.01	−.44***	(.76)
7. National identity	−.04	.03	.13	.30***	.55***	−.37***	(.78)
8. Sociocultural adaptation	.54***	.50***	.24***	.09	−.23**	.46**	−.24**	(.87)

Note. Alpha coefficients are in the diagonal in parentheses.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Regression Analyses

The hierarchical regression analyses are grounded on the International Comparative Study of Ethnocultural Youth project (ICSEY; Berry et al., 2006), which supports that indicators of psychological adaptation, such as SWB are influenced by acculturation measures and sociocultural adaptation measures. “Psychological adaptation can be seen as the final outcome in the model, containing or reflecting the psychological consequences of the acculturation experiences that were measured as well as sociocultural adaptation” (Berry et al., 2006, p. 157).

The correlation matrix of the predictor measures showed that no correlation was higher than .65, which points out that the predictor measures could be used without the danger of collinearity (Field, 2000). The variance inflation factor (VIF) values were all below 10 and the tolerance statistics above 0.20, suggesting that there was no collinearity within our data. First as criterion, we used variable academic satisfaction, and the predictors were entered in three steps. In the first step, the demographic factors of gender, age, financial situation, and duration of sojourn were entered into the regression. In the second step, the intercultural contact factors, such as language proficiency, social interactions and cultural identity were entered. In the third step, sociocultural adaptation was entered.

Results showed that demographic measures did not have a significant predictive effect on academic satisfaction. When the intercultural contact measures were entered, the model explained 23% of the variance in academic satisfaction. The model did significantly predict academic satisfaction. Language proficiency (β = .15, p < .05), out-group interactions (β = .38, p < .001), and ethnic identity (β = .32, p < .001) significantly contributed to the variance in the criterion. Specifically, higher language proficiency, out-group interactions, and ethnic identity had a significant positive effect on academic satisfaction. When sociocultural adaptation was entered in the model, out-group interactions (β = .33, p < .001) and ethnic identity (β = .18, p < .05) remained significant in the model, and sociocultural adaptation (β = .43, p < .001), revealed a predictive effect on academic satisfaction. The overall model explained 35% of the variance in academic satisfaction. Table 3 presents a summary of these analyses.

Table 3.

Regression Predicting Angolans’ Academic Satisfaction.

Predictor variables	Satisfaction with academic life
Predictor variables	Block 1	Block 2	Block 3
Demographic factors
Gender	.12	.04	.03
Age	.02	.07	−.04
Financial situation	.09	.08	.02
Duration of sojourn	−.09	−.15	−.01
Intercultural contact factors
Language proficiency		.15*	.07
In-group interactions		.05	.07
Out-group interactions		.38***	.33***
Ethnic identity		.32***	.18*
National identity		.03	.01
Adaptation factors
Sociocultural adaptation			.43***
Multiple R²	.03	.23	.35
R² change and significance	.03	.20***	.12***

Note. Beta standardized coefficients are reported.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

For well-being as criterion, we used the same three steps, and on a fourth and final step, academic satisfaction was entered as a block to determine whether it would be a significant predictor of well-being after demographic, intercultural, and social adaptation factors were accounted for. In the first step, demographic measures did not also have a significant predictive effect on well-being. When the intercultural contact measures were entered, the model explained 26% of the variance in well-being. The model did significantly predict well-being. Language proficiency (β = .20, p < .05), and ethnic identity (β = .42, p < .001) contributed significantly to the variance in the criterion. Specifically, higher language proficiency and ethnic identity had a significant positive effect on well-being. When sociocultural adaptation was entered in the model, ethnic identity (β = .24, p < .05) remained significant and sociocultural adaptation (β = .45, p < .001) displayed a predictive effect on well-being. In the fourth step, sociocultural adaptation (β = .28, p < .001) remained in the model and academic satisfaction (β = .44, p < .001) also emerged as significant predictor. Academic satisfaction added 12% of the variance explained. The overall model explained 51% of the total variance on the prediction of well-being. Table 4 contains a summary of these analyses.

Table 4.

Regression Predicting Angolans’ Well-Being.

Predictor variables	Well-being
Predictor variables	Block 1	Block 2	Block 3	Block 4
Demographic factors
Gender	.05	−.02	−.05	−05
Age	.05	.05	−0.6	−07
Financial situation	.15	−.04	−.12	−.11
Duration of sojourn	−.19	−.14	.01	.03
Intercultural contact factors
Language proficiency		.20*	.12	.09
In-group interactions		.11	.15	.10
Out-group interactions		.09	.02	−.09
Ethnic identity		.42***	.24*	.13
National identity		.05	.01	−.02
Adaptation factors
Sociocultural adaptation			.45***	.28***
Satisfaction with academic life				.44***
Multiple R²	.06	.26	.38	.51
R² change and significance	.06	.20***	.13***	.12***

Note. Beta standardized coefficients are reported.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

This research set out to examine the issue of SWB among Angolan students in Portugal. Specifically, we analyzed how they think and feel about themselves generally, and how satisfied they are with their academic life. We compared the SWB of international students to a nonimmigrant sample. The results partially supported H1, which predicted that Angolan students would reveal lower levels of well-being and academic satisfaction than domestic students. As expected, current findings showed lower well-being for Angolan students than for national students. However, Angolan students revealed higher levels of academic satisfaction than domestic students.

These findings point to a mixed picture of the immigrant paradox. Although our results concerning satisfaction with academic life support the immigrant paradox, the results regarding global well-being did not support the immigrant paradox. McDonald and Kennedy (2004) have observed that the healthy immigrant effect depends on the health indicators used, and the society of settlement (Domnich, Panatto, Gaspirini, & Amicizia, 2012). This observation merits being highlighted, as within the SWB framework the immigrant paradox is not supported for the overall well-being, but it is supported for a specific life domain, that is, academic satisfaction.

A possible explanation to finding greater academic satisfaction among Angolan students than Portuguese students may be related to greater appreciation of membership groups for the former. As Angola is more collective than the Portuguese society (Hofstede, 2001), belongingness to groups such as the family and the nation is of greater importance. In particular, taking into account the lack of qualified staff in Angola, obtaining a higher education degree will be an asset to the Angolan nation, contributing to its development (António, 2013).

Our second hypothesis tended to be supported to a large extent. As expected, language proficiency was significantly correlated with SWB. This finding is in agreement with a systematic review demonstrating a positive association between language proficiency of the sojourning country and psychological adjustment (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). In fact, “language barriers can impact assignment writing, understanding lectures, oral or written examinations and the ability to ask questions” (Smith & Khawaja, 2011, p. 702).

The results found that international students who interacted more with conationals had higher levels of well-being and academic satisfaction. Our findings also showed that students who interact more with domestic students had higher levels of academic satisfaction. This result implies that interacting with Portuguese students can provide opportunities to increase social connections with the host society, which may help IS to experience better adaptation. However, it is worth pointing out that this kind of intercultural contact could also be beneficial to the Portuguese students, in that they can break free of stereotypes they might have toward foreigners.

Regarding cultural identity, ethnic identity was positively related to both well-being and academic satisfaction, as expected. Hence, results support a positive relationship between SWB and ethnic identity, consonant with past investigations (e.g., Phinney, Cantu, & Kuntz, 1997). For example, Berry et al. (2006) showed that immigrants with an ethnic profile displayed higher levels of psychological well-being. However, contrary to expectation, national identity was not related to SWB. So, for Angolan students, their SWB seems to be more related to the identity of the home culture than to that of the sojourn culture. In a previous study with African students, it was also found that national identity is not associated with their psychological adaptation (Neto & Wilks, 2017).

Our third hypothesis was supported. Sociocultural adaptation related in predictable ways to both well-being and academic satisfaction as part of an established nomological network (Ward & Kennedy, 1999; Wilson, 2013). This is understandable, given that international student’s SWB is closely related to the way they acquire cultural competencies during cross-cultural transition in a new educational setting (Diener & Diener, 1996; Lent et al., 2007).

It was expected that demographic factors, such as gender, age, length of residence, and financial situation would account for modest levels of the explained variance in SWB. Psychosocial variables such as acculturation and sociocultural adaptation, would account for the larger part of the explained variance in well-being. This was clearly found, supporting the fourth hypothesis. The regression models showed that 51% and 35% of the explained variance in well-being and academic satisfaction, respectively, accounted for combination of demographic and psychosocial factors. However, only 6% and 3% of the explained variance of demographic variables were attributed to well-being and academic satisfaction, respectively. Therefore, as expected, the demographic factors only accounted for a small percentage of variance in SWB.

Andrews and Withey (1976) stated that the demographic variables they assessed accounted for less than 10% of the variance in SWB. Neto (1995, 2002) and Sam (1998) also found that demographic variables were less relevant than personal factors for the understanding of life satisfaction. Lent (2004) also showed that demographic variables tended to explain the least amount of variance in SWB. Therefore, to improve one’s SWB, early intervention should focus more on psychosocial than demographic factors, as the former can be changed more readily than many of the latter.

According to Cohen (1988), a large positive correlation was found between well-being and academic satisfaction. This finding indicates that academic satisfaction tends to occur together with well-being. The fifth hypothesis was supported, as academic satisfaction predicted global well-being beyond demographic, acculturation, and sociodemographic factors.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that Angolan students revealed lower levels of well-being and higher levels of academic satisfaction than native students. Acculturation and sociocultural adaptation factors accounted for a larger proportion of explained variance in SWB than demographic factors. Academic satisfaction predicted well-being beyond demographic factors, intercultural factors, and sociocultural adaptation. These results should be developed further to offer new insights into research on international students considering additional predictors of SWB such as prejudice, loneliness, social support, and personal growth.

Current results suggest practical implications for experts working with Angolan international students, namely, for designing and implementing programs targeted at SWB promotion. To the extent that intercultural and adaptation factors are malleable, programs aimed at increasing SWB might successfully target these international students. For instance, to increase their academic satisfaction international students might be aided to acquire culturally specific skills required to operate effectively in the sojourn cultural setting, to retain their sense of belonging to their home group and to strengthen bonds with domestic students. Current findings also suggest that the promotion of academic satisfaction might contribute to increasing the well-being of international students.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Félix Neto

Author Biography

Félix Neto is professor of Psychology at the University of Porto (Portugal). His research interests include cross-cultural psychology and social psychology (especially migration and subjective well-being). He has published 16 books and about 300 scientific articles.

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