Virtual Internationalization to Support Comprehensive Internationalization in Higher Education

General Approach

For the development of a comprehensive VI concept, the entire spectrum of Comprehensive Internationalization had to be considered. Higher education conferences from relevant fields were chosen as data sources. Conferences were selected that unite a broad spectrum of perspectives on higher education, including at the strategic, administrative, faculty, and classroom levels. Because of this diversity and practical orientation, conferences constituted a more suitable data source than scholarly literature, questionnaires, or interviews (Bruhn, 2020, pp. 77–81). They facilitated an investigation of the actual practices on administrative, academic, teaching, and political levels.

Included conferences took place between 2012 and 2017. Besides relevance to the research question, selection criteria were geographic distribution (worldwide) and thematic width of the conferences. Key thematic fields were internationalization and ODE/educational technology. For achieving thematic width, conferences from general higher education and some educational disciplines were also included (see Figure 1). By contrast, conferences centering only on isolated aspects of VI were excluded. For instance, the COIL/IVEC conference, which focuses on a specific kind of curricular internationalization, was omitted.

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Figure 1.

Conferences in the sample ² .

To access the information presented, a content analysis (Julien, 2008; Krippendorff, 2013) of conference abstracts was conducted. Abstracts were sampled that combined the virtual and the international, using appropriate search strings (cf., Bruhn, 2020, p. 96). Within the content analysis, two distinct methods were applied: coding and computer-assisted text analysis (CATA). Coding was used to obtain manageable units of analysis from the data in relevant categories. CATA facilitated probing for transversal concepts and topics, thus adding detail and nuance to the analysis, and countering potential researcher bias.

Coding

Abstracts were coded according to different categories, in particular:

- Aim/function of the measure;

For the aim/function category, a two-step coding approach was applied, moving from a detailed level towards a higher level of abstraction (cf., Lewins & Silver, 2007, p. 85). The first step consisted of open coding, recording the concrete aims/functions pursued in the respective abstract. In order to reduce complexity and draw more general conclusions from the data, higher-level coding categories were developed inductively that grouped those concrete aims/functions to a manageable number of more abstract entities (cf., Julien, 2008, p. 120). With this method, one key aim/function per abstract was attributed.

To facilitate the analysis, abstracts that were coded with the same category (pillar) of Comprehensive Internationalization could then be grouped and analyzed in more detail—both along the lines of the aim/function coding category and with the complementary CATA method, as described in the following section.

Computer-Assisted Text Analysis (CATA)

Two software tools were used to perform CATA: MS Excel and the concordancing software AntConc.

In MS Excel, formulae were employed to conduct customized text probing tasks. This way, particular character strings of interest and their occurrence across abstracts (in the entire corpus or filtered sub-datasets) could be identified. For instance, in a spreadsheet with abstract texts listed in column A, the formula  =  IF(ISERROR(SEARCH(“strateg”;A1));0;1 would result in the value 1 if the string *strateg* occurred in the abstract in field A1 (irrespective of the number of occurrences in that abstract), and in 0 if it did not occur. The customized formulae facilitated the combination of different string searches into one—in the case of strategic action, probing for the occurrence of several key terms associated with the topic at once (cf., Bruhn, 2020, pp. 111–113). This went beyond the possibilities of automated text analysis programs, which would not recognize the lexical association of these terms (cf., Bruhn, 2020, pp. 107–108).

This text probing approach served as a preliminary step. Additional CATA methods were required since it could neither be assured that each occurrence of an identified term pointed to the issue under investigation (here: strategic action), nor could contexts be distinguished with this method. Concordancing software (AntConc, Version 3.5.7) was selected for investigating such preliminary results with the word search and keyword in context (KWIC) techniques. These have been found to provide effective analytic methods for similar purposes (cf., Guest et al., 2012, p. 107; Krippendorff, 2013, pp. 214–220). Three techniques have been included in this research:

- Lemma search/lemma count: An automated lemma list, ranked by frequency, was used to identify frequent terms of potentially high transversal relevance in the corpus. Contrary to a stemming algorithm, a lemma list would combine inflected forms of words (such as teacher/teachers) into one analytic unit, but not combine all words with the same stem (such as teacher/teaching). This served to differentiate actors from acts in the analysis.

General Results

From a sampling frame of 74 conferences, 549 abstracts were obtained that made a direct connection between a virtual and an international dimension of higher education. These abstracts constituted the sample for this research. In this article, numbers in square brackets [1 ≤ n ≤ 549] are used as unique identifiers for individual sampling points.

The attempt to transfer the model of Comprehensive Internationalization to the sample (i.e., to code abstracts according to their respective pillar) proved useful, but showed two limitations. First, it was impossible to treat strategies and articulated institutional commitment independently of the contexts of their application. Rather, strategic action was identified as transversal to all other categories of VI.

The second limitation of the model of Comprehensive Internationalization was that abstracts pertaining to the field of ODE did not fit into either of the predefined pillars. In the classification outlined by Helms and Brajkovic (2017), programs delivered entirely online or at a distance fall into the collaborations and partnerships pillar as part of “other offshore programs”. This categorization is in line with the general scholarly discourse, which regards ODE as one of the facets of TNE (François et al., 2016; Knight, 2016)—while Knight (2016) also acknowledges problems with this categorization and recommends further research into the topic. This research identified two problems in particular. First, transnational ODE does not have to be characterized by collaboration, but can be developed and offered independently of foreign partner institutions. Second, ODE is often not targeted at an international, but at a domestic clientele (although there may also be international students enrolling). By separating education which is entirely delivered at a distance from primarily campus-based education, this research was able to depict the specifics and different requirements of each mode of education. Therefore, the category of online and distance education was added to the analysis (Figure 2).

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Figure 2.

The six parallel categories and one transversal category of virtual internationalization. Adapted from Bruhn (2020), p. 131.

Through coding, 24 key aims/functions were identified across the dataset (Table 1). Note that all mentions of codes from Table 1 and of categories from the VI concept (Figures 2 and 3) are set in italics in this article.

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Figure 3.

Seven categories and two dimensions of virtual internationalization.

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Table 1.

Aims/functions of VI and Their Frequency in the Sample (adapted from Bruhn-Zass (2020), p. 144).

Aim/function	Count	%
Intercultural, international, and global competencies	112	20%
Pedagogical innovation	51	9%
Enhancing the experience of international students	41	7%
Access to higher education	40	7%
Enhancing the experience abroad	34	6%
Recruiting international students	31	6%
Promoting the institution	30	5%
Broader skills, competencies, knowledge	26	5%
Enhancing staff and faculty training/development	25	5%
Access to an international experience	25	5%
Enhancing the experience of international online students	21	4%
Exporting higher education	20	4%
Enhancing the experience of mobile domestic and international students (at the same time)	16	3%
Capacity building	14	3%
Internationalizing the institution as a whole	12	2%
Developing multiplicators	11	2%
Enhancing general advising	8	1%
Promoting international exchange programs	7	1%
Fostering partnerships	6	1%
Connecting international and domestic students (within the same HEI or program)	5	1%
Internationalizing online education	4	1%
Enhancing the experience of TNE students	4	1%
Quality enhancement	3	1%
Developing interculturally sensitive staff/faculty	3	1%
Total	549	100%

A closer look reveals that several abstracts do not aim at internationalization itself, but at something broader: On the one hand, internationalizing the experience of students and/or staff by developing their intercultural, international, and global competencies is a widespread issue (20% of contributions in the sample). On the other hand, the relatively frequent occurrence of the more general broader skills, competencies, and knowledge (5%) implies that the sample also covers aims that go beyond the idea of “internationality”. Similarly, while access to an international experience—a concept referring to the internationalization discourse—is at the center of 5% of contributions, the broader concept of increasing access to higher education is widespread within the sample as well (7%).

This result presented a challenge to this research: If internationalization was to be addressed in the narrow sense of the term, abstracts had to be excluded that use the combination of a virtual and an international dimension as a vehicle to reach something different. However, as scholars have emphasized, internationalization and its broader functions are inextricably linked (Brandenburg et al., 2019; de Wit et al., 2015, p. 29). In fact, several aims/functions can be interpreted as two sides of the same coin—for instance, capacity building or creating access to higher education as flipsides of exporting higher education (cf., Tait & O’Rourke, 2014, p. 45). Therefore, these diverse aims and functions were maintained in the analysis, while a second dimension was added: The first includes aims/functions that are directly internationalization-related (ICT and internationalization), and the second those that go beyond internationality (ICT and an international dimension for broader aims) (Figure 3).

Coding the abstracts according to the six parallel categories of VI revealed that the largest portions of the 549 abstracts in the sample revolve around issues of curriculum, co-curriculum, learning outcomes, and physical student mobility, which each constitutes at least one-third of abstracts (37% and 33%, respectively). The category of collaboration and partnerships is covered in just over one in ten contributions, similar to that of (fully) online and distance education (11% each). The aspects of administrative leadership and faculty policies and practices are least often at the center of attention (4% each), but still provide a rich database to inform this research (24 and 21 contributions, respectively).

This distribution within the VI categories shows that students are the core target groups of VI as discussed at conferences examined, whereas academic staff is less often in the focus. This observation is substantiated by the fact that the lemmas student, learning, course, and education represent four out of the five most frequent terms in the sample, whereas teacher and faculty rank places 21 and 25, respectively (having eliminated functional words such as “and”, “in”, and “the” (cf., Krippendorff, 2013, p. 216)).

In the following, findings obtained for each of the seven analytical categories of VI are presented, starting with the transversal category of strategies and articulated institutional commitment.

Strategies and Articulated Institutional Commitment

Probing the sample for strategic terms with MS Excel resulted in 1,219 occurrences of terms that potentially describe strategic action. KWIC and cluster searches found that one in four abstracts (135) addressed the topic, with 164 mentions total. Coding of these occurrences resulted in six strategic fields:

Internationalization strategies (in general) (37 occurrences)

Administrative Leadership, Structure, and Staffing

A key aspect in the administrative leadership, structure, and staffing category is leadership for internationalizing the institution as a whole with ICT. This includes the (infra-)structural support of virtual exchange and hybrid international events. A further facet is the provision of online tools to international office staff to help them optimize processes.

Additional aspects in this category refer to the training and development of administrative staff to support internationalization (coded: enhancing staff and faculty training/development and developing interculturally sensitive staff/faculty. Abstracts referring to faculty are discussed below). This research identified both formalized and nonformal approaches. Examples include online training for professionalizing international office staff (including in partner institutions abroad), virtual self-help tools, and peer-learning and networking opportunities to enhance administrative processes.

Broader aims of staff development include the enhancement of skills to facilitate access to, capacity of, or quality of higher education (at home and abroad) (coded: access to higher education, capacity building, and quality enhancement). For instance, the proficient use of interoperable software and skills in following global standards are presented as central to widening access to higher education.

Curriculum, Co-curriculum, and Learning Outcomes

Enhancing intercultural, international, and global competencies is the most frequently addressed aim/function in the curriculum, co-curriculum, and learning outcomes category. Among the competencies mentioned are language skills, intercultural understanding, openness to multiculturalism, and the ability to deal with cross-cultural issues. Another aspect discussed is the development of responsible global citizens, empowered to tackle global challenges. Access to an international experience is a further aspect addressed.

VI is also used with the aim of connecting international and domestic students (within the same HEI or program)—for example, with virtual learning environments that encourage active online discussions between national and international student populations.

Broader aims in this category include the acquisition of broader skills, competencies, knowledge. Preparing students for the society of the 21st century and enhancing their employability are frequently addressed aims. Virtual international work experiences and expert mobility are used to provide students with insights into international businesses and to foster “21st century skills,” which students need for the global economy.

A further aspect of broader skills, competencies, knowledge is the enhancement of discipline-specific knowledge: Presenters in the sample argue that Web 2.0 broadens the community of inquiry and that “the spaces of knowing are changing; no longer are learners constrained by institutional boundaries, but they can explore in virtual and cross-cultural settings” [312]. With transnationally expanded access to virtual labs and specialists from abroad, knowledge is becoming trans-institutional and international.

Another broader aim identified is pedagogical innovation in teaching and learning. Examples include global virtual collaborative environments where “innovative thinking” and a “deeper level of learning” [484] are fostered, “innovative content-based course design” [85] that includes e-travelling, and a transnational virtual lab to provide inquiry-based science education.

Finally, aspects of VI in this category include increased access and capacity of higher education (coded: access to higher education and capacity building)—for example, when massive open online courses (MOOCs) and open educational resources (OER) introduced into curricula facilitate worldwide access to content from renowned institutions. One abstract argues, for instance, that gamified transnational learning can increase access to higher education for students of low socio-economic status because of these students’ familiarity with the gaming concept.

Faculty Policies and Practices

Most of the aims/functions addressed in the sample concerning faculty policies and practices refer to the training and development of academic staff to support internationalization (coded: enhancing staff and faculty training/development and developing interculturally sensitive staff/faculty. Abstracts referring to administrative staff are discussed above). From the concrete aims/functions identified at the coding stage, two purposes and two modes of VI in faculty development were deduced. This differentiation helps in grasping the complexity of the role of faculty development in VI.

The two purposes are:

Development of domestic faculty to prepare them for international exchanges and collaboration or to teach international students;

Regarding the development of international faculty (2), examples of the first mode (a) include a hybrid training program to lower barriers for internationally educated academics to acquiring a teaching position in domestic higher education. For the second mode (b), an example reported is an online teaching academy for faculty from partner institutions that provides skills for teaching in international contexts.

Concerning broader aims in this category, pedagogical innovation is addressed as one key goal—for example, when training faculty in creating international multimedia experiences which enrich student learning (1-b). Broader skills and competencies are another aspect. For instance, faculty are expected to broaden their teaching competencies by means of virtual international collaboration (1-a).

Physical Student Mobility

ICT is used for enhancing advising and the overall experience before, during, and after the stay for both domestic and international students:

- International students “generally begin their journey toward a global experience within the digital environment” [154]. Therefore, abstracts in the sample regard online advising and support (coded: enhancing general advising) as critical. Measures as diverse as tutorials, online self-assessment tools, and social media communication are discussed. ICT is also used for enhancing the experience of international students by facilitating admissions upon arrival and by supplementing support offers with “comprehensive orientations” [178]. Finally, the involvement of international alumni in tutoring current international students represents an example of virtual mobility after the physical stay.

Additionally, marketing and recruiting international students have been identified as key components in this category. Alongside “classic” online marketing, social media have “radically changed the global landscape of international student recruitment” [421]. HEIs include international alumni as well as domestic students abroad in these activities—with social media campaigns, alumni testimonials, blogs, or vlogs.

Based on its capacity to aid the personalization of services, ICT leads many presenters to omit concepts of cultural diversity and instead treat international students as part of “the youth market” [439], as a new “generation” [460] pertaining to the current “pop culture” [164, 330], and as common “native speakers of a new kind of language, digital” [460].

Among the broader aims of ICT use in physical mobility (as broader skills, competencies, knowledge), employability is a key topic. E-portfolios that help integrate career skills into learning abroad are discussed, as well as game design elements that bridge education and the world of work to “boost the employability of international students” [422]. Other abstracts argue that access to higher education is enhanced when expatriate or military learners can pursue higher education degrees from their home country despite their mobility.

Collaboration and Partnerships

This research found ICT to be used for fostering partnerships through inter-institutional platforms for e-learning, MOOCs, and OER, and with joint hybrid courses and degrees. In addition, ICT is employed to support HEIs’ presence abroad, serving both an institutional expansion to new markets (coded: exporting higher education) and access to an international experience for international students. “Virtualization” is discussed as a potential future scenario for branch campuses, as in one panel discussion: “to morph, blend, specialize, innovate, virtualize or close?” [513].

ICT is also used for enhancing the experience of international students enrolled in TNE, with a variety of web- and app-based m-learning tools. One argument raised in abstracts is the flexible provision of educational and support offers. Another is the possibility to counter intercultural difficulties between the awarding institution and the branch, for example, with social media tools that create a sense of community.

With regards to broader aims of ICT use in collaboration and partnerships, access to higher education and capacity building are the main aspects discussed, in TNE and beyond. OER, MOOCs, m-learning, and virtual labs are invoked as means to this end. For instance, the transnational “Gender in Agriculture” and “Open Content for Development” (OC4D) projects both employ OER for developing countries. Another collaborative project uses virtual labs and m-learning to “allow universities in Africa to teach STEM subjects with hands-on activities at a fraction of the cost” of traditional classes [107]. M-learning is also employed in transnational projects training community health workers in Africa. Besides developing countries, industrialized nations are also addressed in the context of access and capacity. The “Boldic” Nordic-Baltic transnational cooperation, for instance, attempts to increase access to high-quality education in regions with low population density.

Pedagogical innovation is also considered: For TNE, MOOCs are discussed for “transcend[ing] the formal and informal learning space”, thereby impacting on “our evolving understanding of pedagogy through this new medium of learning” [445]. Another abstract argues that online learning can help overcome challenges in international joint degrees, facilitate the transfer between systems, and innovate curricula at all institutions involved.

Online and Distance Education (ODE)

ODE is frequently addressed in the sample as opening new markets for exporting higher education, and as a way of adding a mode of delivery to the TNE landscape. TNE is also called “the next leap in distance learning” [524]—a logical step for the ODE field, fueled by advances in educational technology.

Supporting and enhancing the experience of international online students is another key aspect drawn from the data. Whether international students are enrolled in virtual TNE with an entirely international target group or in degrees with both domestic and international peers, ICT is used to help them navigate their educational programs—with culturally responsive online learning and self-help MOOCs. Adapting content, language, media, technology, and instructional methods to international contexts are regarded as necessary to counter a “clash of cultures” [482] and ensure equitable learning outcomes in ODE.

Furthermore, ICT is acknowledged for internationalizing online education—often as the only option for domestic ODE students to get a study-related international experience. This includes two aspects in particular: making use of the virtual presence of international students and collaborating with online classes from abroad.

The dimension of broader aims of ODE in international contexts has a large overlap with aspects discussed for collaboration and partnerships—in terms of access to higher education and capacity building in developing and emerging economies in particular. The strength of transnational ODE vis-à-vis other modes of (TNE or domestic) delivery is seen in securing capacities for sustainable development and in helping to meet the global demand for (quality) education. This also extends to nontraditional students, especially those who have family or job commitments—a classic target group of ODE. To further expand access, one abstract discusses the transnational use of OER in non-formal education.

The internationalization of ODE is also addressed in its potential for quality enhancement of the ODE delivery mode—for instance, by adopting transnationally shared institutional practices and quality assurance standards.

Finally, pedagogical innovation is discussed. In comparison to physical campuses, one abstract argues, online campuses “begin with a great advantage: They are not limited by geography, they can tap into experts across the world and bring their knowledge into a central and easily accessible location”. Consequently, it is argued, the disadvantages of a placeless education can be counterbalanced by the borderlessness of a “global campus” [511].