Abstract
Latino men are more likely to binge drink than their non-Latino male counterparts. Moreover, Latino fathers who misuse alcohol may show rigid masculine values (traditional machismo) rather than sensitivity and warmth (caballerismo). In an online survey of 309 Latino fathers, the researchers explored the relationship between problem drinking and traditional machismo, caballerismo, child–father relationship, father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity. The study found that problem drinking was associated with higher levels of traditional machismo and child–father conflict and lower levels of fatherhood identity. In addition, fatherhood identity moderated the relationship between traditional machismo and problem drinking. These results underscore the significance of fatherhood identity for Latino men and support a strengths-based approach for substance abuse interventions for Latino fathers.
As the U.S. Latino population grows from one in every six residents of Latino origin to one in every three by the year 2060, the pressure to provide alcohol use services that are culturally grounded has become a health care necessity (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). While Latino and non-Latino men have similar alcohol use rates, Latino men who misuse alcohol have more adverse health and social consequences (Caetano et al., 2010; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014). Possibly, this is due to an increase in binge drinking, where both the quantity and frequency of drinking alcohol are higher for Latino men than their non-Latino male counterparts (Courtney & Polich, 2009; Harford et al., 2018).
Men who engage in problem drinking are more likely to become a parent before completing their education or finding steady employment (Kerr et al., 2011). Nevertheless, sometimes entering into fatherhood can lead men to increase their sense of obligation to education or work (Duran et al., 2007; Gance-Cleveland, 2006; Rosa et al., 2005) and their connections to their family and community (DiGrande et al., 2008). A substantial amount of literature exists supporting the relationship between positive father–child relationships and decreased adolescent alcohol use (Moreno et al., 2017); however, there is a gap in the knowledge base concerning how fatherhood affects alcohol use for Latino men.
Using a national sample of Latino fathers, the present study addressed the questions of how cultural components of manhood, specifically traditional machismo and caballerismo, along with the father–child relationship, father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity affect problem drinking. Because one key factor in understanding the role of fathers is how they perceive their identity as fathers, the researchers hypothesized that parental identity may have buffering effects on negative behaviors associated with problem drinking.
Latino Fatherhood: Parenting and Cultural Constructs
The notion of fatherhood has shifted over the past decade, moving from primarily that of the father being the breadwinner or provider to, more currently, the father being more involved in different phases of parenting, especially those roles typically assigned to the mother (Marsiglio & Roy, 2012). Because the literature strongly supports father involvement as associated with positive outcomes for both the child and father, attention has been brought to how interventions can increase father involvement to the value of all family members (Lamb, 2010). Yet neither the benefits of fathering nor the effects of these benefits on Latino fathers with substance use issues have been thoroughly explored by researchers. Given that the development and acculturation process of the Latino populace lasts longer than any other U.S. ethnic immigrant group (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2009), it is essential to incorporate parental constructs with cultural issues, especially those regarding gender, when discussing Latino fatherhood identity and behavior.
Fatherhood Identity
One strong identity for Latino men is their role as a father. As Pleck (1997) commented, “paternal identity can be viewed as an integration of the individual’s developmental history, personality characteristics and beliefs related to fathering” (p. 84). Indeed, the identity of fathers consists of multiple and sometimes conflicting roles and dimensions, such as provider, husband, employee, or alcoholic. According to identity theory, once parenting roles or norms associated with these identities are internalized, these expectations are mentally arranged in hierarchical order by salience or importance (Stryker & Burke, 2000). Internalized identities aligned with parenting norms and expectations are externalized through a father’s expression of masculinity in either a positive and nurturing fashion or a negative and controlling manner. Thus, fatherhood identity is a factor that may affect a father’s expression of masculinity and parenting behaviors.
For some men, the experience of entering into fatherhood might be an event in their lives that is life-changing and may create a break from negative behaviors (Astone et al., 2010; Dew & Eggebeen, 2010; Duckworth & Buzzanell, 2009; Kerr et al., 2011). Similarly, for disadvantaged men, becoming a father can be an avenue to building productive roles, developing loving relationships, and integrating into the social networks that will allow them to build cultural capital. In alignment with identity theory, under specific circumstances and contexts, fatherhood identity may serve as a protective factor for fathers who are struggling with problem drinking behaviors. In this study, the researchers investigated the role Latino fatherhood identity played in fathers with problem drinking and whether this helped mitigate the negative effects of traditional machismo on problem drinking behaviors.
Father Self-Efficacy
According to Pleck (2007), how fathers perceive their role as parents is an essential component to defining their involvement. Fathers’ perceptions of how they parent successfully reflect their self-efficacy as parents (Jones & Prinz, 2005). If fathers feel stressed, this pressure may have a negative influence on the advancement of parenting self-efficacy. In one empirical study, decreased sense of self-efficacy was associated with attributing parenting failures to internal deficiencies and high levels of depression and anxiety (Shumow & Lomax, 2002). However, when self-efficacy for parents was high, they were more likely to have the tenacity to grow and forge ahead in the face of barriers and challenges. Based on the positive association between self-efficacy and parental mental health, the researchers hypothesized that there would be an inverse relationship between Latino father self-efficacy and problem drinking.
Father–Child Relationship
Unique to parenting is the relationship between the father and child; this relationship influences the development of fatherhood identity and self-efficacy. Often, if the relationship between father and child is strained or difficult, then the father is more likely to perceive his parenting as a failure or exhibit a low level of father self-efficacy (Jones & Prinz, 2005). Research supports the importance of fathers being actively involved in their child’s life for determining healthy child and father outcomes; however, the quality of the relationship between the father and the child may have even more importance (Carlson & Magnuson, 2011; Lamb, 2010). Current literature supports the claim that the Latino parent–child relationship affects adolescent substance use outcomes (Mogro-Wilson, 2008); however, little has been done to investigate the effects of the father–child relationship on the father’s own drinking. This current study will analyze the impact of the father–child relationship through levels of closeness and conflict on the problem drinking behaviors of fathers.
Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo
Alcohol use in men is influenced by a variety of factors, including sociocultural and gender behavior norms of Latino culture (Guerrero et al., 2014; Zemore, 2005). For example, adherence to strong masculine identities, or traditional machismo, stresses emotional disconnectedness, toughness, and physical strength; traditional machismo has been associated with high levels of mental health issues and alcohol misuse (Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Liang et al., 2011). Similarly, stereotypical conceptualizations of fatherhood include adherence to traditional masculine norms, including dominance, withdrawnness, and excessive punishment (Mirandé, 1991). Traditional machismo is empirically correlated with physical, mental, emotional, and interpersonal alienation between a father and his children (Glass & Owen, 2010). Traditional machismo has also been linked to many significant risk factors for child mistreatment, such as but not limited to physical abuse, rape or sexual assault, and alcohol and drug abuse (Vasquez Guerrero, 2009).
In contrast, caballerismo, the counterpart to traditional machismo, emphasizes egalitarianism, empathy, and positive parenting and familial relationships (Arciniega et al., 2008). Caballerismo stresses responsibility to the community, emotional attachment, and overall life satisfaction (Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2014). Cruz et al. (2011) studied the role of caballerismo on the children of 450 two-parent Mexican families and found that fathers’ positive machismo (caballerismo) was positively correlated with higher levels of father engagement in their children’s lives. Because traditional machismo is more closely correlated with aggression, dominance, and lower paternal engagement, the researchers hypothesized that caballerismo rather than traditional machismo would more closely predict lower levels of problem drinking.
Present Study
Latino men have not been the focus of the fatherhood research that is currently flooding the field. Furthermore, few studies have investigated the ability for fatherhood as an identity to decrease substance use although qualitative data have supported this notion (Laub & Sampson, 2003). Therefore, this study investigated the relationship among the cultural constructs of traditional machismo and caballerismo and integrated fatherhood involvement variables of the child–father relationship (closeness and conflict), father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity to investigate their impact on problem drinking behaviors of Latino fathers. Based on the conceptual frameworks of these variables as well as empirical evidence demonstrating their associations with positive or negative parenting behaviors, the researchers decided to study the impact of traditional machismo, caballerismo, child–father relationship, father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity on Latino fathers’ problem drinking. In addition, the researchers investigated whether fatherhood identity moderated the relationship between traditional machismo and problem drinking. This decision to choose fatherhood identity as a moderator as opposed to other variables studied was based on the strong assertion of identity theory stating that a higher level of fatherhood identity is associated with an increase in positive parenting behaviors.
The researchers hypothesized that higher levels of traditional machismo, a negative child–father relationship, low levels of father self-efficacy, and weak fatherhood identity would be associated with higher levels of problem drinking. They also hypothesized that high levels of caballerismo, a positive child–father relationship, high levels of father self-efficacy, and strong fatherhood identity would be associated with lower levels of problem drinking. Finally, they hypothesized that fatherhood identity would moderate the relationship between traditional machismo and problem drinking, with higher fatherhood identity related to lower traditional machismo and less problem drinking.
Method
During January 2018, Qualtrics sent invitations to a portion of their four million adults over 18 years old who had previously expressed interest in participating in Qualtrics research (Esomar, 2014). Qualtrics used a sampling procedure that utilized participants’ demographic information and was representative of the U.S. population. To determine an adequate sample size using an alpha of 0.05, a power of 0.20, and a medium effect size (f2 = 0.15), the suggested sample size was at least 138 (Tabachnick, 2007). To account for multiple models that were being tested, a sample of 309 Latino fathers was collected. To decrease self-selection bias, the email did not contain details about the survey. Respondents completed the online survey in return for incentives that were established within the Qualtrics panels’ agreements. The study’s selection criteria required participants to be Latino or Hispanic in ethnicity, identify as male, and have at least one child under the age of 18. Reliability questions were built into the study to evaluate whether respondents read the questions and responded carefully to the survey. To decrease duplication, Qualtrics verified IP address and used a digital fingerprinting technology (Esomar, 2014). The university IRB approved all study protocol.
Participants
The sample consisted of 309 Latino fathers with an average age of 36.69 years (SD = 9.79). Half of the sample identified as Mexican (50.8%), almost a quarter identified as Puerto Rican (21.7%), and the remaining fathers identified as Central American (7.8%), South American (7.1%), Cuban (6.8%), and Dominican (5.2%) (Table 1). Most fathers were married (70.6%) and employed full-time (74.4%). Almost half of the sample had 2 years of college or technical school, a high school degree, or less than a high school degree (46.6%); half lived in an urban environment (46.6%). The average income of the sample was between $60,000 and $69,000.
Father Demographics (N = 309).
The average number of children was 1.83 (SD = 0.97). Fathers were asked at the study’s start to identify their youngest child by first name and to answer the questions about parenting their youngest child. The online survey used auto-fill (“piped text”) to place the child’s first name that the father identified at survey start for the parenting questions. The average age of the fathers’ youngest child was 7.00 (SD = 4.81); in addition, 56.3% of these children were male and 43.7% were female. Most fathers had custody of their youngest child (90.3%) (Table 1).
Measures
Fatherhood identity
Fatherhood identity was measured utilizing the Father Role Salience Scale (Bruce & Fox, 1999), which is a role-level identity scale. Role salience is the precedence that one role holds over others. This role-level scale consisted of 10 statements; respondents indicated which statements were not true, somewhat true, or very true of them. Some statements were “Being a father has changed me a lot”; “I would rather work overtime than watch my kids for the evening” (reversed); and “I like being known as a father.” A mean score was computed, and higher numbers indicated stronger identity as a father. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was acceptable for the fatherhood identity scale: .72 (Cortina, 1993).
Father self-efficacy
The self-efficacy subscale of the Parenting Sense of Competency Scale (Johnston & Mash, 1989) was utilized to measure Father Self-Efficacy. It contained 17 items and explored the perceived abilities of the father to handle the demands of parenting. Sample items were as follows: “I meet my own personal expectations for expertise in caring for my child” and “Being a parent is manageable, and any problem is easily solved.” Fathers rated their level of agreement from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicated greater perceived self-efficacy. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was acceptable for the father self-efficacy scale: 0.76 (Cortina, 1993).
Closeness of father–child relationship
The closeness of father–child relationship was a subscale of the Child–Parent Relationship Scale that measured parents’ perception of their relationship with their child (Pianta, 1992). Fathers were told to answer based on their youngest child. The seven items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (definitely does not apply) to 5 (definitely applies). A higher score indicated fathers’ perceptions of having a closer relationship to their child. Some questions were “I share an affectionate, warm relationship with my child,” and “My child values his or her relationship with me.” In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was very good for the closeness of father–child relationship scale: .89 (Cortina, 1993).
Conflict in father–child relationship
The conflict in father–child relationship was a subscale of the Child–Parent Relationship Scale (Pianta, 1992). The eight items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (definitely does not apply) to 5 (definitely applies). Higher scores indicated fathers’ perceptions of having a more conflictual or problematic connection with their child. Sample items were as follows: “My child and I always seem to be struggling with each other” and “My child easily becomes angry at me.” In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was high for the conflict of father–child relationship scale: .92 (Cortina, 1993).
Traditional machismo and caballerismo
The Traditional Machismo and Caballerismo Scale consisted of 20 items (Arciniega et al., 2008). The dichotomous scale measured traditional machismo with 10 items and assessed caballerismo with 10 items; both measures were rated on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). Example items included “Real men never let down their guard” (traditional machismo) and “Men should respect their elders” (caballerismo). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was high for both scales: .92 for traditional machismo and .93 for caballerismo (Cortina, 1993).
Acculturation
Acculturation was measured with the Abbreviated Multidimensional Acculturation Scale—ZABB—20 (AMAS–ZABB–20; Zea et al., 2003). The AMAS–ZABB–20 had 20 items rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree/not at all) to 4 (strongly agree/extremely well) consisting of items for Latino and U.S. cultural identity. There were two subscales measuring Latino and U.S. cultural identity. The Latino acculturation subscale consisted of items such as, “I feel I am part of Latino culture,” while the U.S. acculturation subscale contained items such as, “I feel that I am part of U.S.-American culture.” For each subscale, a mean (average) score was created. The Cronbach’s alphas for Latino and U.S. acculturation in this study were both very good at .88 (Cortina, 1993).
Problem drinking
Problem drinking alcohol was measured using the 4-item CAGE measure. CAGE stands for Cutting down, Annoyance by criticism, Guilty feeling, and Eye openers, an acronym to help service providers remember the questions (Ewing, 1984). A higher score was an indication of alcohol problems, and a total score of two or greater was considered clinically significant. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was very good at .83 (Cortina, 1993).
Covariates: Sociodemographic variables
The father’s age, youngest child’s age, youngest child’s gender, father’s education, and father’s income were utilized as demographic variables and covariates in the models if they had a significant relationship to the dependent variable (problem drinking).
Analysis
Analyses were conducted with Statistical Package Social Sciences (SPSSv22) (SPSS Inc., 2013). Associations among fatherhood identity, father self-efficacy, child–father relationship, traditional machismo, caballerismo, and problem drinking were investigated in a multistep process. First, sample demographics were presented (Table 1) and then correlation analyses were run to explore whether the cultural and fathering characteristics and possible covariates or sociodemographic variables, including acculturation, were correlated with problem drinking (Table 2). Covariates that did not have a significant correlation with the problem drinking were dropped from the regression analyses. Second, ordinary least squares regression models were utilized to test the relationship between the predictors and problem drinking. Third, the interaction effect of fatherhood identity and traditional machismo on problem drinking was assessed to determine whether fatherhood identity moderated the relationship between traditional machismo and problem drinking. All continuous mean predictors were centered and not standardized (Aiken & West, 1991). Results are presented for the main effects model (without interactions) as well as the models that included main effects and interactions in Table 3.
Correlations (N = 309).
0 = male.
p < .05. **p < .01.
Regression Model and Interaction Effects Predicting Problem Drinking for Latino Fathers (N = 309).
Note. All models adjust for father acculturation, father’s age, youngest child’s age. CI = confidence interval.
p < .05. **p < .001.
Results
Step 1: Correlations
Correlations were conducted to explore the relationships among problem drinking, traditional machismo, caballerismo, child–father relationship (closeness and conflict), father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity as well as possible covariates such as father’s acculturation, age, income, education, youngest child’s age, and youngest child’s gender (Table 2). Covariates that did not have a significant correlation with problem drinking (father education, income, and youngest child’s gender) were dropped from the regression analyses.
Step 2: Main Effects
Multiple regression was used to assess the ability of traditional machismo, caballerismo, child–father relationship (closeness and conflict), father self-efficacy, and fatherhood identity to understand problem drinking after controlling for the father’s acculturation, father’s age, and child’s age (Table 3). Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity. The main effects model was significant; the total variance explained by the model predicting problem drinking was 37.8%, p < .001, F(9, 308) = 20.19. Latino fathers with higher levels of traditional machismo and child–father conflict and lower levels of fatherhood identity significantly predicted higher problem drinking (p < .01, unstandardized B = 0.019, B = 0.038, B = −0.076) (Table 3). No other predictors were significant in the model predicting problem drinking.
Step 3: Interaction Analysis
The overall model including an interaction term of fatherhood identity and traditional machismo was significant; the total variance explained by the model predicting problem drinking with the interaction was 38.6%, p < .001, F(10, 308) = 18.72. For Latino fathers, fatherhood identity moderated the relationship between traditional machismo and problem drinking (p < .05, unstandardized B = −0.003; Table 3). Figure 1 plots the effects of traditional machismo and problem drinking at low and high values of fatherhood identity. The differences in problem drinking between high and low traditional machismo among low fatherhood identity are more than 1 unit but less than 0.5 unit for high fatherhood identity. High levels of traditional machismo and low levels of fatherhood identity were related to increased problem drinking. In contrast, low levels of traditional machismo and high levels of fatherhood identity were related to decreased problem drinking. Higher levels of problem drinking were seen with high levels of traditional machismo and low levels of fatherhood identity.
Interaction effect of fatherhood identity and traditional machismo on problem drinking (N = 309).
Discussion
The role of the father is important for both the child and father. The level of father involvement, paternal engagement, parental responsibility, and financial contributions all play a role in youth and father well-being (Cabrera et al., 2014). However, children are also beneficial to fathers. The purpose of this study was to understand how Latino masculinity constructs and fatherhood characteristics were related to problem drinking. The researchers’ hypotheses were partially supported. This study found that (a) adherence to traditional values of Latino masculinity was related to more problem drinking; (b) identifying strongly as a father is beneficial to Latino men and associated with less problem drinking; (c) having a conflictual father–child relationship is associated with more problem drinking; and (d) fatherhood identity moderates the effects of traditional machismo on problem drinking, where identifying strongly as a father is related to less problem drinking.
Nevertheless, a few of the researchers’ hypotheses were not supported. Surprisingly, high levels of caballerismo, a close father–child relationship, and high levels of father self-efficacy were not related to less problem drinking. Likewise, in Glass and Owen’s (2010) study of Latino fathers and the relationship between machismo and paternal involvement, there was no significant association between caballerismo and paternal involvement. More in-depth research is needed to thoroughly assess the association between positive father engagement through the cultural expression of caballerismo and problem drinking. In addition, given these counterintuitive findings, the conceptual relationships between caballerismo, father–child closeness, and father self-efficacy that support their connection to lower levels of problem drinking should be further studied within more diverse samples of Latino fathers and environmental contexts.
This study’s findings highlight the importance of fatherhood for Latino men and offer a strengths-based approach for intervention and prevention of alcohol misuse. A strengths-based approach to the reduction of problem drinking behaviors among Latino fathers is rooted in positive psychology and the concept of empowerment, or “power with” rather than “power over” individuals (Blundo, 2013; Saleebey, 2006). According to Saleebey (1996), a strengths-based approach focuses on “getting on with one’s life, affirming and developing values and commitments, and making and finding membership in or as a community” (p. 298). In other words, the strengths-based approach was designed to help individuals or groups find their own solution to a problem rather than prescribing a generic form of treatment and intervention; these solutions are often rooted in their own cultural and ethnic background and values—their inherent strengths. From this perspective, individuals are participating in their own liberation rather than acting as passive clients or consumers of a therapeutic relationship. Therefore, a strengths-based perspective to fatherhood interventions aims to improve fathers’ sense of resilience and use of coping strategies to overcome psychological stressors and institutional inequities (Conn et al., 2018). A strengths-based approach also utilizes Latino cultural values, especially their connection to their own identity as fathers, to improve their sense of self-efficacy and resilience in response to internal and external conflict.
This study implies that an effective strengths-based approach to fatherhood intervention not only integrates positive, healthy expressions of masculinity and the parent–child relationship but also increases the level of fatherhood identity. Interventions for Latino fathers with problem drinking that emphasize the role (i.e., fatherhood identity) men have in the family as nurturers and providers may help them promote more social connectedness and place a stronger value on their familial relationships. The study’s findings are also similar to research that supports the significant relationship between adherence to traditional machismo and problem drinking (Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Liang et al., 2011). For young men in particular, there are strong social pressures to engage in social drinking and more frequent attempts to live up to a macho image by consuming large amounts of alcohol in a very short period of time. This social pressure to binge drink causes a normalization of misuse of alcohol that is exacerbated by the promotion of hypermasculinity, an exaggerated performance of stereotypical, traditional masculinity emphasizing aggression and violence against women (Vasquez Guerrero, 2009). However, the results of this study show that if Latino fathers can identify strongly as a father, then the negative effects of adhering to traditional masculine norms and problem drinking may be reduced.
Limitations
There were limitations to the data provided by Qualtrics and the generalizability to other populations, particularly that this is a sample of Latino men. First, this was a cross-sectional study that was conducted in a short length of time (3 days) without examining child outcomes. Second, there are so many variations of Latino men from place of birth to sexual orientation that were not taken into consideration; for example, nuances and differences among Mexican American and Puerto Rican men were not accounted for in this study. In addition, all nuances of coparenting and in-depth measures of father involvement were not covered in this study. Further studies would benefit from a more detailed understating of how father involvement plays a role in substance use. Finally, although this study investigated issues of Latino masculinity using a reliable and established scale (Arciniega et al., 2008), this dichotomous measure of machismo has been critiqued for its relevance and applicability to Latino fathers that exhibit fewer polarizing aspects of traditional machismo and caballerismo. Indeed, the measures of traditional machismo and caballerismo could benefit from revision and reassessment to more accurately reflect the nuances and complexity of the modern-day father.
Implications for Practice
This study contributes to the literature on fatherhood identity and parenting behaviors by exploring the significance of the identity of Latino fathers in relation to problem drinking. The study recognizes that the cultural value of adhering to rigid and repressive standards of masculinity is harmful in relation to alcohol use; this study suggested that increasing fatherhood identity could moderate this relationship. Increasing the role of fatherhood identity allows practitioners to further explore Latino fatherhood and the potential it may have in utilizing fatherhood identity in substance abuse prevention and treatment programs. Moreover, the relationship a father has with his child is a prime area of intervention, where interventions can focus on decreasing conflictual relationships which may lead to less problem drinking.
This study showed that Latino cultural values, specifically traditional machismo, and parent–child conflict are often at the core of a father’s identity. Because fatherhood identity may serve as a buffer or protective factor between traditional machismo and problem drinking behaviors, any culturally informed approach to practice must incorporate an understanding of how identity impacts fathering behaviors. Therefore, social work practitioners should be more skilled at integrating these values into strengths-based fatherhood interventions, including building more sensitive and nurturing relationships between fathers and their children. Utilizing a strengths-based approach to informing interventions allows practitioners to enhance existing family and cultural strengths and helps fathers develop strategies for enhancing resilience that are mediated through both positive and negative cultural values (Walsh, 2015).
Fathers have been overlooked not only in research and clinical practice but also as a potential area for substance abuse prevention that could have positive effects on the father, child, and family unit. This study suggests that practitioners utilizing a strengths-based approach should emphasize the role of fatherhood identity to improve community-based and therapeutic interventions. Latino men and their experiences as fathers highlight the importance of emphasizing strengths-based models where they are positioned as resilient parents that have challenges but also many assets, especially within their cultural values and traditions, which can help them become better fathers. With the large expansion of the Latino population in the United States coupled with the growth of alcohol misuse among Latino males, it is essential to find alternative and innovative strengths-based models of intervention for this population. Social work practice could benefit from an increased emphasis on Latino men’s sense of resilience and use of coping strategies for overcoming psychological stressors and institutional inequities.
Footnotes
Disposition editor: Sondra J. Fogel
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
