Conspiracy Theory: The Demand for Social Work Interventions

Abstract

Conspiracy theories continue to threaten individuals, groups, and social institutions. They are easily spread through social media and are attractive to many in society. These theories commonly target perceived dangers to those in power and, thus, can undermine both social justice and human rights. Consequently, social work—with its focus on social justice and the person-in-environment framing—must assume a proactive role in dealing with these theories, which includes interventions at many different levels of practice beginning with education. Social work’s goal of achieving inclusive, diverse, and equitable societies demands that the profession assume an active role in challenging these theories.

Keywords

advocacy policy modes of practice professional issues social work education antioppressive practice

Introduction

Conspiracy theories pose grave threats to individuals, groups, social institutions, and many aspects of society. Given their breadth and the ease with which they spread, they cannot be ignored by the social work profession. The theories are commonly generated by those seeking to maintain control over those less powerful who are viewed as threatening to those in power (Jolley & Douglas, 2019). Easily spread through social media, conspiracy theories can foster prejudice while undermining institutions, individual well-being, and the social order. As these theories frequently target specific groups, who are viewed as responsible for the problems, they contribute to prejudice, discrimination, and oppression and are incompatible with the realization of human rights.

Conspiracy theories conflict with and undermine the ethics of the profession, which call for social justice and the realization of human rights (National Association of Social Workers [NASW], 2021), and the CSWE Competencies, which ask that social workers advance just practice and societies while intervening at all levels of practice to assure diverse, equitable, and inclusive societies (Council on Social Work Education [CSWE], 2022). Consequently, social work interventions are demanded to assure that these ethics and rights are not violated and that societies are inclusive and free of oppression. This article discusses the characteristics of these theories and the ways in which social work can intervene and challenge them.

Characteristics of Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy theories attempt to explain the causes of significant political and social circumstances as being due to powerful covert or malevolent groups that seek to undermine the society or its institutions (Harambam & Aupers, 2021). They have existed throughout history and can easily contribute to violent extremism as well as undermine political participation, government policies, and public health measures (Cichocka, 2020).

Common to all theories are beliefs that certain powerful groups are not permitting the greater public to know the real cause of an event or problem (Douglas & Sutton, 2023). With the theories based on faith rather than fact or science, they are difficult to disprove and can have tremendous impacts on society. As an example, conspiracy theories that view climate change as a hoax that cannot be taken seriously dispute the need for climate change actions. Distrust in political institutions has led to claims of fraudulent elections, voting restrictions, and even violence (Einstein & Glick, 2015; Rottweiler & Gill, 2022), while doubts about COVID-19 contributed to refusals to adhere to public health guidelines.

The beliefs can be dangerous as they drive behaviors that can impact relationships and society, frequently resulting in violence (van Prooijen & Douglas, 2018). Adherents to the theories are easily convinced that their actions are needed and just, giving them a moral responsibility to combat those perceived as responsible for the problems (van Prooijen, 2022). Often the targets of these theories, those seen as responsible for the problems, are ethnic and minority groups that are marginalized in society. Such groups are easily subjected to discrimination, prejudice, and even genocide as they are considered threats to society.

Although the assumptions that the theories are based upon are unsupported by evidence, the beliefs in the theories meet many psychological needs, including the need for relationships, as persons unite with others who share the same experiences and anxieties. Among the many factors contributing to believing in the theories are feelings of uncertainty, a need for control and security, and a need to maintain a positive self-image or group image (Douglas et al., 2017, Whitson & Gallinski, 2008).

Susceptibility to these theories is heightened by fear, insecurity, and a longing to belong and feel good about oneself and one’s social status (Jolley et al., 2020). The theories give those who feel isolated, powerless, and alienated proof that their shortcomings are not the result of individual failure but are the result of external forces beyond their control. In addition, as the theories help the powerless to feel stronger and more engaged, they are particularly attractive to those who feel vulnerable and insecure in society. The ties they offer to others through shared messages and beliefs further reinforce adherence (Jolley et al., 2020). Sharing the same beliefs and concerns about threats further justifies adherents’ commitment (Imhoff & Lamberty, 2018).

Other psychological factors conducive to believing in conspiracy theories indicate that feelings of uncertainty and narcissism are important (Dagnall et al., 2017). For these persons, scientific data may be disregarded in favor of more easily explained causes. Particularly susceptible to believing in these theories are those with less education and little understanding of science and the need for empirical evidence to support such claims (Boberg et al., 2020).

Two common modes of conspiracy theories, politically based and public health based, have had significant impacts on individuals, groups, and social justice across the globe. Both fuel prejudice and oppression and have threatened societies and their institutions.

Politically Based Theories

Politically based conspiracy theories challenge the legitimacy of those in power and have far-reaching impact on society and individuals. The underlying common thread is that a powerful group has secretive information or is planning to undermine or threaten society and its institutions.

A powerful example of the impact of the theory on individuals and institutions is the January 6, 2021, attack on the United States Capital Building. QAnon, a widespread political conspiracy theory that evolved into a political movement, was an active motivating force in challenging the legitimacy of the election and was a key instigator in the attack (Zihini, 2022). The first posts on its website in 2017 claimed that a cabal of satanic sexual abusers of children operated a child sex trafficking ring that conspired against President Trump. Politicians, business leaders, and medical experts were identified as leaders of the cabal, with a particular antisemitic edge that focused on Jewish financiers such as George Soros and the Rothschilds. Although the attack was unsuccessful, its beliefs continue to be influential. A recent survey by the Public Religion Research Institute (2022) found 18% of Americans believe violence may be necessary to save the country, and 16% believe that the government, media, and financial worlds are controlled by Satan-worshipping pedophiles.

The attack on the capital was based on accusations that voting machines counting the election ballots were flawed, that votes were switched, and vote counting was incorrect (Solis, 2021). Although courts found no evidence supported these claims, the attackers refused to accept the validity of the results, believing that their actions were needed to save the country (van Prooijen, 2022). With many continuing to doubt the legitimacy of the election, faith in the electoral process has been undermined. Such doubts have enabled states to develop regulations that include limited access to mail-in ballots, restricting same-day voter registration, and requiring proof of citizenship to vote or register, making voting harder for people of color and those with disabilities (Brennan Center for Justice. 2022; Waldman, 2022). These restrictions seriously impact the rights of many to participate in the democratic process.

Conspiracy adherents have also become active in local governments where they are often influential in city councils and school boards (Anglesey, 2022). Such infiltration has been discussed as a serious assault on democracy as theorists invade and distort not only official political arenas but every domain of social life (Muirhead & Rosenblum, 2022). Their involvement in choosing school curriculum, staffing police departments, and even selecting library materials impacts our institutions (Flannery, 2021) and poses a very grave threat to our society and justice itself.

Public Health and Conspiracy Theory

The COVID-19 virus offers a prime example of the impact that conspiracy theories can have on both individuals and societies as they contested scientific and governmental regulations critical to fighting the virus (Chu et al., 2021). According to the World Health Organization (2022), contesting science and government policies through antivaccination campaigns and resistance to wearing masks and public distancing impacted and contributed to the spread of the virus and to both increased morbidity and mortality. The theory led to a lack of adherence to public health measures that could mitigate the spread of the virus as the measures were perceived as attacks on individual freedom with scientific evidence discounted (Pummerer et al., 2022).

In addition, as the virus increased social isolation and anxiety, many became reliant on social media for their contacts and relationships, further increasing exposure to such theories and contributing to their threat to public health (Bierwiaczonek et al., 2020). For example, Dr. Anthony Fauci, the former chief medical advisor to the president of the United States, was accused of being funded by a Chinese laboratory that created the COVID virus (Amore, 2021), and Bill Gates, cofounder of Microsoft, was accused of trying to microchip the world through a COVID-19 vaccine (Shen, 2021). Reminiscent of the witch trials in the Middle Ages, powerful figures were used to explain misfortunes that common people had no control over (Jamieson, 2021).

In Europe, conspiracy theories became rampant during the COVID-19 pandemic, spreading easily through social media, with many based on QAnon beliefs (France 24, 2021). Weakening economies, social isolation, and a mistrust of institutions fueled the proliferation of these theories. Antimasking protests associated with the pandemic and government lockdowns contributed to worries that the movements could destabilize democracies, particularly those with high rates of inequality (Drochon, 2021; France 24, 2021)

However, it is important to recognize that history and past experiences may also be influential in the acceptance of a conspiracy theory. The Tuskegee study, which targeted African Americans in its investigation of untreated syphilis, is a prime example of how an event can justifiably cause distrust in government and health care. Hesitancy and reluctance to get COVID-19 vaccinations among many Black Americans revealed a distrust over medical institutions stemming from the Tuskegee study, as well as subsequent discrimination by health care institutions and providers (Newsome, 2021). Distrust and hesitancy and histories of poor care and discrimination by the medical system may be influential in the responses of others who have had negative experiences with the health care and must be considered in understanding the health behaviors of many individuals and groups.

Consequences of Conspiracy Theories

In addition to impacting political institutions and health care, conspiracy theories have serious consequences on those perceived as threatening the established social order. The great replacement theory builds upon a common shared belief that white people are the superior race and are threatened by inferior groups who seek to “replace them” (Ekman, 2022). The theory originated in France where it focused on concerns that ethnic French and white Europeans were being replaced by non-white people, particularly from Muslim countries (Chatterton, 2017). It transferred to other nations where marginalized groups, particularly people of color, immigrants, and Jews, are commonly perceived as polluting the white race (Clark, 2020).

The theory, based on prejudice and discriminatory beliefs, has fueled attacks, including gun violence, against people of color and other groups. The seriousness of the theory to the security of society is reflected in the resolution passed by the U.S. House of Representatives that condemns the theory as the root cause of mass murders and terrorist attacks and the subsequent urgent need for the Congress to acknowledge and condemn acts of racial violence and combat white supremacy in all forms (Raskin, 2022).

Throughout history, Jews have been a target of conspiracy theories based on a belief that they are trying to control the world. A notorious example of this conspiracy theory is The Protocols of the Elders of Zion that appeared in a Russian newspaper in 1903 and was adapted by Henry Ford into a newspaper series, The International Jew, in the 1920s. The protocols describe the Jewish people as a cunning elite whose goal is to dominate the world by destroying institutions, the church, and society. Although a fabrication based on ancient stereotypes and attitudes, the book continues to stir anti-Semitic acts and violence, including recent claims that Jews caused the COVID pandemic (Zipperstein, 2020) and that Jewish bankers are using lasers to start forest fires to finance railroads (Chaitt, 2021).

The impact of these beliefs is found in data that show the incidence of antisemitic attacks increasing by 36% since 2021, with the highest number on record since 1979 (Anti-Defamation League [ADL], 2023). More than 60% of religious attacks in the United States are fueled by antisemitism (FBI, 2022). The increase in antisemitism has been attributed to white supremacist networks using coordinated methods to spread antisemitic propaganda as well as social media stars spreading long-standing antisemitic tropes (ADL, 2023)

Conspiracy theory gains strength through its underlying tenet that it is seeking to sustain society and its institutions as it continues to attack groups that would threaten it. Prejudice, discrimination, and oppression fuel this tenet while undermining the security of groups and society. Thus, those who believe in a Jewish conspiracy are likely to harbor the same negative attitudes toward other groups, including Blacks, migrants, and LGBTQ individuals, who are perceived as threats to those in power and to the status quo (Imhoff & Bruder, 2014; Jolley et al., 2020).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) communities were targeted by conspiracy theorists (Ong, 2021, Strassel, 2022). References to the virus as the Kung Flu or Chinese virus stirred hate crimes and attacks against Asian persons with a 77% increase from 2019 to 2020 in hate crimes against Asian people living in the United States (United States Department of Justice, 2021). The internet and right-wing media contributed to these attacks by permitting the spread of misinformation and fostering hostility between the Black and AAPI communities (Ong, 2021). The impact of the attacks was experienced by increases in anxiety and depression among college students (Zhou et al., 2021) while harassment, assaults, and vandalism impacted the security and well-being of older immigrants.

Immigrants are a common target for conspiracy theorists as they are perceived as having a negative impact on the economy and society, which can easily fuel government mistrust that leads to exclusion and violence (Gaston, 2018). In France, distinctions between French people and others, particularly Muslims and immigrants who were viewed as threats to the established order, led to violent attacks and an increase in anti-Muslim rhetoric (Onishi, 2022).

Recently, critical race theory (CRT) has been viewed as a conspiracy theory by extremists who claim the theory is placing blame and guilt on white people for racism and Black people as oppressed helpless victims seeking to gain power. Several states have claimed the theory is inaccurate and cannot be taught in public schools. Responding to such perspectives, the College Board revised its Advanced Placement course African American Studies, deleting many of the Black scholars associated with CRT as well as core material on Black history (Hartocollis & Fawcett, 2023).

Conspiracy theory is not restricted to race, religion, or ethnicity. In many states, legislation for LGBTQ inclusion in schools has come under attack as it is viewed as a conspiracy aimed at educating children to be “gay” (Woodruff, 2022). Opponents of including the material allege that such education is indoctrinating or “grooming” children and are inappropriate for schools. The term “grooming” implies that liberals are purposely attempting to control children and make them vulnerable to sexual abuse (Romero, 2022), with such claims aimed at increasing parental support (Kaplan, 2022). However, the impact of removing these materials on the children causes them to feel anxious, erased from education, and excluded, while also subjected to more bullying and harassment (Bittker, 2022).

Discussion

Social Work and Conspiracy Theory: Areas for Intervention

Microlevel Interventions

This discussion of conspiracy theories and their consequences highlights the impact they have on societies, social justice, individuals, and groups. Their undermining of societies based on hate and unvalidated beliefs about perceived threats to those in power demands social work interventions to assure that false beliefs and oppression that actively assault human rights and social justice do not prevail. Accordingly, such interventions should begin with social work education that includes a foundation in critical thinking, integral to social work practice (Gibbons & Gray, 2004).

Critical thinking is the process by which persons learn to recognize how dominant ideologies that involve the central concepts of class, gender, race, and ethnicity may be embedded in everyday situations and practices (Brookfield, 2012, p. 48; Hall et al., 2021). Key to critical thinking is the development of student self-awareness and self-reflection as it is through this self-understanding that one can understand the perspectives and behaviors of others. Knowledge of one’s own identity development including biases, privileges, and experiences is a basis for effective work with others (Sloan et al., 2018). Critical thinking is an essential base for work, with persons adhering to conspiracy as it is key to learning how they see the world and how and who they perceive as threats.

Important for effective work with those who adhere to these theories is learning about interventions that are specific to the acceptance of such beliefs. These interventions should focus on listening rather than arguing. Research on susceptibility identifies three broad psychological traits that can be important to these believers: a need to understand the world, to feel safe, and to belong and feel good about oneself and one’s social groups (Cichocka, 2020). As feelings of powerlessness, anxiety, isolation, and alienation contribute to adherence, validating individuals and assisting them to strengthen their sense of identity can reduce their attraction to these theories (Hogg, 2021). Offering understanding and support is important in this process as, rather than alienating, it strengthens self-concepts and can thus be important in diminishing the need to adhere to conspiracy theories.

Collaborative work that is nonjudgmental and assists people to explore beliefs and why they are attracted to them is an intervention that can help persons to recognize the harm that these theories inflict while also empowering them to feel a greater sense of control over their own lives (Niang, 2015; Orosz et al., 2016). Empowerment, often offered in groups, focuses on helping persons achieve a sense of personal power, become more aware of the connections between individual and community problems, and develop skills that are important in working for change (Gutierrez et al., 1998). Consequently, within the group, sharing experiences and beliefs with others who hold similar perspectives, and learning with them the impact they may have, may be a particularly effective intervention. Empowerment groups offer support that is important for change as well as a setting that is secure.

In addition, histories of discrimination and oppression are real, and their impact on individuals must be recognized. It is essential to understand and be sensitive to the experiences that persons may have encountered which result in mistrust in institutions. As noted in the Tuskegee experiments, such impact continues to be felt and can be influential on health behavior, mistrust, and even mortality (Wilson, 2021). It is important to acknowledge these histories and experiences and their potential influences on health behaviors if trust in new initiatives and the building of new relationships is to occur (Leonard & Phillippe, 2021).

Macrolevel Interventions and Advocacy

As conspiracy theory impacts all levels of society, social workers must become involved in advocacy that challenges these theories and their outcomes. The Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) include Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice (CSWE, 2022), which calls on social workers to recognize the many factors that affect social policy, to influence policy through antioppressive lenses, and to engage in and advocate for antioppressive policies.

Macropractice that focuses on advocacy skills that can support the rights of vulnerable groups and policies responsive to diverse communities are essential for socially just societies (Jansson, 2018). Consequently, social workers must engage in policy practice. Education should focus on teaching policy practice skills and encouraging both students and practitioners to become engaged in politics and political organizations (Weiss-Gal & Gal, 2020). Thus, macropractice interventions are critical in combatting conspiracy theories that discriminate, oppress, and impede social justice.

Understanding the power of the media and the influence that it can have on behavior is a necessary step for change (Moorse, 2022). Social workers can play major roles in educating people about the many websites that commonly spread conspiracy theories and how to recognize objectively fake news. Joining with other groups, they can become involved in campaigns that include working toward curbing online hate-based platforms. Letter writing, petitions, press releases, mass communication, television, radio, newspaper articles, and the internet can be used to challenge falsehoods being spread by conspiracy theorists. Such involvement and activities can be a mechanism for stimulating further reflection that helps people to discern fake news from real news, further contributing to policy reforms (Stecula & Pickup, 2021).

Attention must also be given to political leaders and others in power who reflect conspiracy beliefs. Becoming involved in politics, helping in campaigns, registering, and working with voters are ways that social workers can bring attention to and challenge falsehoods. As policies are critical in addressing and combating oppression, social workers should be encouraged to engage in political social work that focuses on establishing socially just societies (Lane & Pritzer, 2018).

At the local level, social workers can become involved in school boards and committees such as those governing libraries and local services to advocate against discriminatory policies that marginalize and oppress. Through community involvement, they can work to increase voter participation among people of color and other groups who tend not to vote, either by choice or due to structural barriers and systemic discrimination. Social workers should consider running for public office where they can use their leadership skills, education, and commitment to shape policies and influence legislation that works for social justice (NASW, 2020).

Implications for Practice

Social work involvement and interventions are critical for challenging and combating conspiracy theories. The profession is unique in its commitment to work for social justice and human rights and to challenge oppression and discrimination. As dictated by the ethics and competencies of the profession, social work is obligated to work for a just society composed of nonoppressive policies in which all individuals and groups can securely participate.

Conspiracy theories attack both human rights and social justice as they target individuals, groups, and political institutions. Espousing falsehoods and beliefs not supported by science or reality, the theories play upon the psychological and social needs of many marginalized and susceptible individuals. By providing a new sense of identity and control, they help many who feel excluded from society and anxious attain a sense of control as they join a community of others sharing the same experiences. With the theories spreading wide through social media and the impact that COVID-19 had on the lives and social isolation of many, the theories have proliferated throughout the globe.

The theories directly conflict with the goals of the profession as they threaten individual well-being and lead to social unrest, marginalization, and oppression. Political conspiracy theories that challenge the validity of institutions pose grave threats to societies as they create doubt and suspicion in believers. Theories associated with public health lead to doubt about the efficacy of specific, scientifically based measures created to stop the spread of a disease.

Both types of theories, as they commonly target specific groups for being the root causes of the problems, foster discrimination, oppression, and even violence in society. Moreover, as they threaten social institutions, they undermine security and threaten democracy itself. In their efforts to institutionalize oppression, conspiracy theories have the potential of having devastating and long-reaching effects on our societies.

Social work involvement and interventions at all levels of practice are necessary to assure that conspiracy theories that foster oppression and undermine social justice and human rights are challenged. Laws and policies that forbid teaching about specific subjects that are viewed as controversial or dangerous contribute to marginalization and oppression and must be contested. At the individual level, practitioners can work with those adhering to the theories to help them understand their beliefs, their need for them, and the consequences on themselves and others. Using their counseling skills, they can work to address the underlying needs that make the theories attractive.

At the macro level, practitioners must become actively involved in challenging the theories themselves. Advocacy and community interventions that include confronting the theories as well as the sources that spread them, exposing their falsehoods and claims, are important measures that can combat them at many levels. By joining with others, becoming involved in politics, and running for public office, social workers can assume critical roles in shaping policies that promote social justice.

Finally, conspiracy theories are incompatible with inclusive, diverse, and equitable societies and counteract the goals and ideals of the social work profession. Social workers can use their education and skills to challenge these theories and the threats they pose to communities. The theories demand social work attention and interventions at all levels of practice. Ignoring them and permitting them to proliferate pose a severe risk to our society and its institutions.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Disposition editor: Cristina Mogro-Wilson

ORCID iD

Carole B. Cox

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