Abstract
Adult learners are taking advantage of the availability and convenience of online education. Mature learners in online higher education classrooms bring a wealth of experience filtered through cultural, generational, and socioeconomical differences. The purpose of this research was to explore community building in an online graduate course by tapping learners’ prior experience using an autobiographical memory exercise. The authors found that building social presence through course design contributed to increased communication and learning and encouraged an active and engaged online learning community. Recommendations for improving online learning communities provide educators with ideas for practice.
“The purpose of this research was to explore community building in an online graduate course by tapping learners’ prior experience using an autobiographical memory exercise.”
Adults pursuing postbaccalaureate degrees and certificates are making their way back to universities in rising numbers. One reason is the availability of online education. In 2011-2012, a higher percentage of graduate students 30 years old and older took distance education classes or an entire degree program through distance education than graduate students 29 years of age or younger (National Center for Education Statistics, 2014). Distance programs offer flexibility in time and location, which suits an adult’s balancing of work, family, and school. The advantage of these mature learners in online higher education classrooms is the wealth of experience they bring—experience filtered through cultural, generational, and socioeconomical differences. This diverse, nontraditional student population opens the door for educators to use unique applications of course content.
The challenge we face as faculty of current online learners who have undergraduate degrees and have worked 5 or more years before returning for a graduate degree—referred to as “returners” by Peters and Daly (2013)—is that they come to our classrooms without prior distance education experience. Many have only experienced instructor-led learning and are unfamiliar with the self-direction required in online environments (Conrad & Donaldson, 2004; York, Yamagata-Lynch, & Smaldino, 2016). This can make for a steep learning curve and frustration that leads to noncompletion. These adults also come to higher education classrooms with some common demands, according to the adult education literature. They seek learning that is relevant and life-centered; many are intrinsically motivated; and, most are or can become self-directed when learning is scaffolded or presented in challenging but doable steps that acknowledge their prior experience and knowledge (Drago-Severson, 2009; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). When instructors integrate their learners’ experience into the curriculum, learners are better able to connect their existing knowledge to new concepts and ideas. This reconstruction of knowledge through accommodation and assimilation (Piaget, 1973) is termed constructivism. Constructivism as educational theory has evolved to include both internal processes and external context. Vygotsky’s (2012) sociocultural theory explores this relationship between the external world and an individual’s cognitive and communication activities.
While constructivism has been critiqued from the strands of cognitive (internal) and sociocultural (external) influences, experiential learning from a Western perspective has often privileged the mind (cognition) over the body (the senses). Michelson (1998) has criticized this mind/body split, referring to it as an act of self-dismemberment. Jordi (2011) warned against any approach that retains a dualism of mind and body, believing that “human learning cannot happen without the mind . . . the brain is firmly embodied. Intrinsic to our embodied brain is the integration of thought and emotion. Thought processes are grounded in emotions and bodily states” (pp. 189-190). Quite simply, experience shapes our understanding of the world. Experience, suggested Fenwick (2003), is often categorized in the following ways: in the moment—a direct-embodied experience—vicariously, simulated, or relived through introspection.
This article presents a study that explored an introspective activity in an asynchronous online discussion forum from a master’s-level course at a public university in the United States. It is a course created to help current and future educators teach or train learners at community colleges, professional schools of health, public and private companies, and on military bases; as well as more nonformal education found in community settings. The purpose of this research was to explore community building in an online course by tapping learners’ prior experience using an autobiographical memory exercise. Based on the findings of the study, implications for improving teaching practice in online courses are presented.
Literature Review
Distance education is still in its infancy compared with teaching face-to-face. Once the Internet became prevalent in homes and businesses, particularly in the Western world, the establishment of online higher education degrees and certificates spread rapidly. Yet, our understanding of teaching and learning in this environment lagged behind, with many instructors simply moving face-to-face strategies to the online environment. In the last several decades, however, expanding research in instructional design has heightened our understanding of learning at a distance.
One aspect of higher education that supports student success in both face-to-face and online formats is the importance of students feeling connected or part of a community. Tinto (1993) suggested that students are more satisfied and more likely to persist if they feel involved with other members of the learning community. Kuh’s (2009) model of student engagement showed that students’ persistence depended on their engagement with their education, and institutions of higher education needed to intentionally design an engaging environment. Therefore, creating learning communities in online courses is important for student engagement and persistence.
Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000) created a community of inquiry (CoI) framework that can assist instructors in designing and enhancing online community. The three elements of the framework—teaching presence, social presence, and cognitive presence—provide a structure for presenting the literature about building online educational communities.
Teaching Presence
Teaching presence, according to the CoI model, is demonstrated in the design and organization, facilitation, and direct instruction found in the course. Note that teaching presence is more than direct instruction. Multiple studies have found that design, organization, and facilitation are critical to online learning (Coulson & Harvey, 2013; Dennen, 2005; Holzweiss, Joyner, Fuller, Henderson, & Young, 2014). Murphy, Mahoney, Chen, Mendoza-Diaz, and Yang (2005) found that course design could create a community of practice that “allows instructors to reduce their load through creative management of their teaching responsibilities” (p. 356). Assignments that incorporate a student’s prior experience and employ open-ended questions create an environment where content is relevant, plagiarism is difficult, extensive dialogue is promoted, and learners are empowered to become more self-directed (Rovai, 2004).
When students come to online courses with the epistemic view that instructors are the transmitters of knowledge and they are passive recipients, the instructor is faced with the challenge of moving learners to a position of co-constructed knowledge creation (Smith, 2010). To move students to a more self-directed stance, curriculum should emphasize student reflection and discourse (Coulson & Harvey, 2013; Garrison & Arbaugh, 2007). When students share authority and co-construct knowledge, they are operating from a more advanced epistemology (Smith, 2010). When the design and facilitation of instruction leads to this advanced epistemology, learning and cognitive growth have occurred.
Cognitive Presence
According to the CoI model, indicators of cognitive presence include the application and connection of ideas, information exchange, and a sense of puzzlement. Garrison et al. (2000) offered a Practical Inquiry Model to operationalize critical thinking within the cognitive presence element. The four phases include a triggering event followed by exploration, integration, and finally resolution. Shearer, Gregg, and Joo (2015) observed that in a graduate adult education course, most discussion posts were of the triggering event or exploration type. Although several interventions superseded these findings, including extending 1-week modules to two and introducing a reflective journal and reflective paper, there was no significant movement toward resolution. Richardson and Ice (2010) found open-ended discussions at the exploration and integration phases and recommended instructors look at discussion as a means of benchmarking growth in critical thinking. Regardless of the importance of critical thinking to student success in higher education, “cognitive presence by itself is not sufficient to sustain a critical community of learners” (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 94). It is reasonable then to believe that a primary purpose of online discussions is to support social presence.
Social Presence
Garrison and Arbaugh (2007) defined social presence as “the ability of learners to project themselves socially and emotionally, thereby being perceived as ‘real people’ in mediated communication” (p. 159). Social presence is demonstrated through open communication, group cohesion, and affective expression. In his review of the literature, Rovai (2002) discovered four dimensions of online communities: spirit, trust, interaction, and commonality of expectations and goals. Spirit involves the feelings of friendship, cohesion, and bonding while trust relies on credibility and benevolence, or “the extent to which learners are genuine in their interest in the welfare of others” (p. 5). Tennant (2012) touched on genuineness in his description of an authentic learning environment as “one in which there is openness, trust, caring, and critical reflection on the self and others by both teachers and learners” (p. 31). McDougall (2015) considered authenticity to include a need for the learner to entertain multiple perspectives, take risks, and show respect and support for other members in the learning community. Social presence, along with teaching and cognitive presence, have garnered many research studies on distance learning communities. Our study focuses on a specific autobiographical online discussion and the applicability of the CoI framework in building a learning community.
Method
The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) guided this study of community building in online courses. The value of studying our teaching and the learning of our students is vital to improving our practice (Weimer, 2006). This study could be considered a “personal account of change” (Weimer, 2006, p. 40) as it assesses the actual teaching practice of one of the authors; however, it is also a qualitative research project using a basic interpretive qualitative design (Merriam, 2002). The data came from transcripts of initial and reply postings by 46 students across four sections over three semesters of a graduate-level, online course on learning in adulthood. Students were de-identified to ensure anonymity. The discussion format for the course’s 2-week modules involved a week for posting to the initial prompt followed by a week of replies to a minimum of three classmates. Discussions were graded as participation.
After reading the course content on learning and memory (see Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, chapter 15), students were prompted to think of a childhood home and count the number of windows, then identify the memory process as either episodic or semantic (MacKeracher, 2004). The discussion prompt then asked, “How did you remember the number of windows, what other memories, if any, did this activity pique?”
The windows discussion prompt was introduced by the instructor between the fifth and ninth week of a 14-week semester, depending on the semester. Learners had at least a month of social interactions before this exercise was introduced. The instructor intentionally planned for students to have an understanding of the Blackboard learning platform and established relationships with classmates before integrating this autobiographical activity.
Both authors coded the discussion transcripts independently using open coding. Following open coding, we overlaid the elements of teaching presence, cognitive presence, and social presence described within the CoI framework (Garrison et al., 2000), which provided a structure for our findings.
Creating Community Through Teaching, Cognitive, and Social Presence
While counting windows and determining what type of memory this reflected, the actual experience generated other memories, questions, and observations. Student discussions were rich with reflections aligned with teaching presence, cognitive presence, and social presence.
Teaching Presence
Designed as a demonstration of the course material on memory, the windows prompt evolved into a reflective experience that triggered nostalgic and emotional recollections. We looked for students’ perceptions of the course design (structure, engagement, challenges) as evidence for teaching presence. The majority of students indicated that the exercise was fun as well as enlightening. Comments included, “enjoyed the activity,” “an interesting exercise,” and “very engaging.”
In addition to enjoyable, we discovered the themes of surprise and revelation under learner engagement. One learner commented that, “It is fascinating how the details can become clear to us when we take on a simple task such as counting windows in an old house where we once lived.” Several remarked on how vivid the memories were that the prompt evoked, while one shared, “I am surprised at how much emotion is involved when asked to recall something as mundane as the number of windows in a house.”
Some students were so intrigued by the exercise, they shared it with others outside of the online community. One shared the activity with his wife who also used episodic memory to count her childhood home windows. Another asked her husband to count windows and was “intrigued by the difference in how he walked around the outside and she had walked around the inside.”
A few students warned of the negative side of such an activity and the challenges an instructor might face. One cautioned that “these sort of theories require the supervision of an instructor who can recognize when a student might be harmfully triggered by experiential learning. The instructor can then guide the student toward a safer path for that exercise.” Another agreed, “As a marriage and family therapist, I know firsthand how things that happened in the past can flood and preoccupy a person’s cognitive executive function if they have not resolved those childhood issues.”
One insightful student brought up a concern that this activity could unveil the socioeconomic status of one’s family at least at a particular time. Responses to this included those who felt their families had financial challenges but it gave them a work ethic of which they are very proud. Others shared that their economic status was secondary to the family closeness that parents and even grandparents created.
Teaching presence was demonstrated through student comments about their experience with the exercise, their reactions to it, and the value they found in the process. They also noted challenges to the exercise that were worth considering in course design.
Cognitive Presence
The content of the module focused on memory, cognition, and the brain. The discussion prompt illuminated semantic versus episodic long-term memory. Cognitive presence emerged through content application and extension, further questioning, subjective truth, and peer-to-peer learning. In demonstrating content application, one student shared, Although I easily used episodic memory to recall the number of windows in the old house, I do not believe I could have been as accurate using semantic memory. While most of the rooms had two windows each, I still would have had to “walk” through the house to count the rooms.
Students were unanimous in their identification of episodic memory in this activity.
Several students linked the exercise to their own teaching practice; we coded this as content extension. “We must remember as both adult learners and teachers that memories play an important role in our lives and our education.” Another student agreed, “This made me think about teaching. I need to create experiences that engage students and help them remember the material we cover.”
The activity prompted further questioning about aspects of memory. One lengthy thread began with a question of whether these memories of childhood homes were from actual experience or from photographs viewed since. Another question asked about the impact of time passed: “I’m curious to see if completing this activity five years from now will show a difference in the memories I recall or make the retrieval process more challenging.” A number of students wondered if the amount of time spent in rooms affected the strength of the memory.
The aspect of subjective truth was noted when several students talked about the difference between what they remembered and what their siblings remembered: “I have lots of memories that my sister swears aren’t true. Especially of how she tried to convince me that I was adopted from China! She got in big trouble for it, but swears she doesn’t remember it.” Another student shared, I happen to be chatting on Facebook with [my brother], so I mentioned it to him, and he swears that he really “did” jump in the middle of the waterbed that last time and it made a huge mess. I don’t remember that part at all.
Peer-to-peer learning was also evident in student discussions. One student acknowledged another’s help in content application: “Thanks for the insight. I did not realize how semantic memory factored into my experience until you pointed it out in your response.” Another student found a classmate’s response valuable in extending the content to practice: “Your post made me realize the importance of interactive instruction to create an ‘experiential’ experience for students so they may ‘connect with information’ and understand it in a ‘personally relevant way.’”
Prompting students to think about the course content is a course goal and the data definitely reflected cognitive presence in their discussions. Of particular interest was the way in which students helped each other think about applying the content and extending it beyond the specific context of the assignment.
Social Presence
The windows prompt opened the door for students to share personal aspects of their childhood and the emotions surrounding these. The experience generated memories about the house as well as family, things, and events. Clearly, students felt comfortable disclosing personal information, presenting themselves as real people, and enacting social presence, thereby creating an inclusive community.
Examples of their sharing-of-self included visualization of their house of choice by “walking” through the house or “viewing” the house from the outside. There were interesting differences related to when they lived in the house, why they chose that particular house, and if they visited the house often because it was still their parents’ home. A couple of students now live in the house they grew up in. One of the most discussed aspects of the window exercise was where one began their count. One student started in the kitchen because that is where most of the family spent their time. Several started at the door in which they typically went through upon entering. “It is interesting that I started by entering the house but you started with your bedroom, your personal space. It goes to show that adults (our students perhaps) will go about a task in very different manners.”
Most students went into great detail about things—furniture, fixtures, window treatments, or accessories. Some even described colors and visual textures of the walls or floors. “I remember the ugly 70s wallpaper that was orange and green in the kitchen that my mother replaced when we moved in.” One student noted the depth of specificity: “I was very surprised about how detailed my memory of that house is. Every crease, every smell, every dent in the wall, the way pieces of the hard wood floor had begun to separate. Everything.” A few described a tactile memory such as heat or the feel of the drapery, prick of a needle sewing or the feel of a cool attic or a kinesthetic memory of running through the house, snapping beans, or shelling peas. Sounds were also described, such as the voices of friends or family, the snap shut of the pantry door, or associations with music. “My upstairs bedroom window was where I would sit for hours on summer evenings, listening to Neil Diamond and Simon & Garfunkel.”
Several talked about the smells associated with their memories, such as rain on a dirt road, musty basements, or wood-burning stoves. “I thought of my old house in Connecticut and remembered that distinct smell of snow and the wood-burning fires. It is very strange and pleasant that certain smells can bring back memories of times that were.” Once a thread addressed the smell of food, others readily joined in, even if they had not originally mentioned aromas in their initial posts. “The smell of potato pies cooking and the pork meat baking, you always knew there was a feast coming soon.”
It was hard for most to describe the house without also describing the people who lived there. Memories of mom were clear: “I do remember my Mom sitting at her sewing machine a lot. It seemed to relax her. She loved to make doll clothes and aprons. Seeing her at the sewing machine working with fabrics is a good memory for me of her” and dad, “I pictured my Dad on a ladder in the kitchen painting the ceiling and walls,” as well as siblings, “I remembered my younger brothers were under 4 years old and a handful.”
Many described their relationships with grandparents who either lived with them in the house or lived nearby and visited often. “Growing up in a very small and rural community, I lived with my grandmother, aunt, and cousin.” One student felt home was with her grandmother: “I also chose my grandmother’s house. We lived in several places, but I always knew Grandma’s house was there and I could always call that home.” Students shared both happy and sad memories of interacting with grandparents and relatives. “I recently lost my grandmother. She was dear to my heart. I loved her as she took great care of me while my dad was on the road as a truck driver.” This intergenerational interaction had particularly strong emotional responses and sometimes resulted in questions about memory and aging.
Having two grandparents who suffered from dementia/Alzheimer’s, I not only fear it happening to me but I often think how lonely it must be for someone to be unable to remember the ones around them whom they loved. It is such a terrible thing.
Students frequently recalled specific events at the house as the windows were counted. Perhaps a time when they were playing outside or brothers were running through the house. “I went from my brother’s room to the game room, I remembered how many hours my brother and I spent playing Super Mario Brothers on the Super Nintendo.” The primary events related, however, were those around traditions. Christmas (and thanksgiving) was a strong memory and included both people and senses—trees were described, dinners were detailed, and the guests listed. “In getting to the living room I had memories of Christmas morning and the presents being laid out in front of the couch.” Another student shared, “I can remember past Christmases spent in my childhood homes as well. I think it’s because we spend time with our family on holidays and those for most people are good memories. I love spending Christmas with my family.”
Trust, one of the dimensions that Rovai (2002) identified with social presence, includes benevolence or compassion. “I’m sorry for the loss of your grandmother but happy that you had so many good memories with her in that house.” Others affirmed a classmate’s memory. “I agree with you that memories shape our lives. We all have good and bad memories and they keep us from doing certain things or they encourage us to do other things.”
Through sharing personal memories and connecting with each other, students exhibited social presence. Students shared far more than was necessary for the assignment, resulting in a connected and engaged learning community.
Discussion
We found thoughtful design and judicious facilitation crucial. Both the content and the learning process were important when designing the online course. Students recognized the value of the course structure only when its application to the course content was obvious. “By creating assignments that allow and encourage students to bring in their own personal experience, we not only assist in the community-building process but also assist with knowledge retention through direct application of concepts” (Palloff & Pratt, 2003, p. 10).
Our analysis of the asynchronous discussions tied to the “counting windows” prompt showed that virtual learning communities do develop if learners feel safe in sharing personal experiences and the associated emotions. Shared memories piqued classmates’ memories and encouraged the comparison of similar as well as different experiences. Students’ memories included an array of senses—touch, sound, smell, color, texture—demonstrating the embodied nature of experience. Important people and events populated the most emotional posts. Emotions were shared and confirmed through humor, sadness, nostalgia, even homesickness.
Although the three CoI presences—teaching, cognitive, social—were instrumental in our study, it was difficult at times to separate these. The two that overlapped the most were teaching presence and cognitive presence. This may be due to an evolving focus on learning-centered versus teaching-centered education that moves the center-stage teacher to sideline learning-facilitator. Palloff and Pratt (2003) suggested that, “the instructor in an online course is the architect of the learning community. However it is the learners who are the structural engineers” (p. 27). Social presence was the most important aspect of the course design—creating a space for students to engage in meaningful ways with each other to create an online learning community.
Application to Practice
This study of the “windows” discussion evoked several suggestions for online pedagogy, particularly in promoting community building. First, discussion prompts that have one clear, expected answer offer little reason for discussion. Subjectivity, as in the windows activity, allows for multiple examples, perspectives, and interpretations to emerge and drive the conversation. Yet, not all course content is as easily applied to personal experience as memory of a childhood home. There are significant differences in the knowledge sought in various disciplines. Functional paradigm development is a primary goal in applied soft disciplines like adult education. However, the pure hard sciences promote cumulative paradigm development; the applied hard sciences, purposive paradigm development; and the pure soft disciplines, reiterative paradigm development (Arbaugh, Bangert, & Cleveland-Innes, 2010). The CoI framework, as observed in this study, may be less applicable or apply differently to the pure hard, applied hard, and pure soft disciplines.
Direct instructor presence depends on the specific discussion activity as well as the timing within the semester. More visible instructor presence early in the term helps students develop confidence in their discussion skills. The windows exercise was introduced midterm, with students having prior experience with both the discussion format and their course peers. The windows discussion thrived without instructor involvement with learners integrating, questioning, and extending the content based on their own personal and professional experience. However, noninvasive instructor involvement ensures that inappropriate or disrespectful behavior or misinterpretation of content is met with a timely redirect from the instructor either to the general community or to a particular learner.
As shown in the data, introspection into childhood can uncover painful memories. Several students commented in general on painful memories, one had a significant reaction and contacted a mental health provider. In this case, thoughtful design includes resources that learners can use if a particular activity produces overwhelming anxiety.
Instructor presence at the conclusion of the discussion allows for analyzing, synthesizing, and summarizing the learning that students exhibited as well as content knowledge missing from the posts. In this discussion on memory, current Alzheimer research, memory subjectivity, and the impact of intervening experience were topics for instructor feedback at the end of the student posting period.
Conclusion
Online coursework is often viewed, and rightfully so in some cases, to be a solitary effort on the part of the learner. Lost is the face-to-face interaction of student with student and instructor with students. Yet, distance education offerings are proliferating because of the flexibility they offer busy adults. Facilitators of online offerings are eager for strategies that create engaged learning communities. These strategies do not duplicate brick-and-mortar courses but integrate the advantages of, and advances in, rapidly evolving technology and our emerging understanding of online learning. This study explored community building in an online course using an autobiographical memory exercise to tap into students’ prior experience. We found that building social presence opportunities into the course design contributed to increased communication and learning and built an active and engaged online learning community.
Footnotes
Conflict of Interest
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author Biographies
Kathy D. Lohr, EdD, is a teaching assistant professor in the Department of Interdisciplinary Professions at East Carolina University. She teaches graduate online courses in the Adult Education Program. Her research interests include development of adult learning communities, aging learners, and online learning.
Karen J. Haley, EdD, is an associate professor and program coordinator of the Postsecondary, Adult, and Continuing Education program in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy at Portland State University. She teaches online, hybrid, and face-to-face courses in the PACE Program. Her current research includes professional development of faculty, staff, and graduate students.