Gender-Inclusive Educational Programs for Workforce Development

Abstract

Vocational and workforce education provide economic opportunity but often exclude or limit the participation of women. Here, we lay the foundation for developing workforce programming from a feminist perspective and building inclusion efforts within academic institutions for vocational education students and practitioners. Based on a systematic review of the literature, we present findings pertaining to three aspects of feminist pedagogy—career choice, care, and multiculturalism—as the basis for identifying the best practices for a feminist pedagogy of vocational education. We conclude with a discussion of the impact of the findings on the personal/social and political/structural qualities of education programs and provide an extensive and concrete checklist for vocational and workforce program administrators and educators to use when evaluating and modifying their programs for inclusive practices.

Keywords

adult learning feminist pedagogy vocational education workforce education diversity inclusion

“Women’s inclusion in many careers is hindered by those professions’ masculinization, undermining women’s earning potential and contributions to the workforce.”

Vocational education and workforce development programs enable learners to rapidly develop skills and enter professions with strong earning potential. As such, vocational education presents the best opportunity for many individuals to move out of poverty and into the middle class (Jacobs & Dougherty, 2006). Economic mobility and access to vocational education are grounded in progressive adult education (AE) values of social justice and democracy (Elias & Merriam, 2005). Unfortunately, poverty disproportionately affects women (Gutierrez-Rodriguez, 2014), and women’s inclusion in many careers is hindered by those professions’ masculinization. Unless vocational education is actively changed, it is likely to perpetuate gender norms, undermining women’s earning potential and contributions to the workforce (Sayman, 2007).

Masculinized professions and industries are those that include politicized aspects of identity, such as gender and sexuality, based on traditionally heterosexual, labor-intensive jobs for men (Collins, 2015; Collins & Callahan, 2012). Personal and professional identities are intertwined in vocational education that prepares people for masculinized industries. When women or nongender-conforming individuals enter masculinized fields, the status quo is disrupted, potentially generating resistance from coworkers, student peers, educators, administrators, and policy makers.

Whether called vocational and workforce education, workforce development programs, technical education, or continuing education all serve similar purposes. The language used typically depends on specific context or geographic location. Here, we rely upon and use the terms vocational education and workforce education interchangeably. We discuss gender in binary terms, but the implications extend beyond biological sex to include gender identities (Atkins & Vicars, 2016).

Building from prior conceptual work on this topic (Galvan, Ray, & Zarestky, 2017; Ray, Galvan, & Zarestky, 2017), this article’s purpose is to synthesize existing empirical research to develop a comprehensive set of strategies, policies, and practices to support the inclusion of women and, by extension, other diverse learners. This study was guided by the following two research questions about vocational education programs:

Research Question 1: What are the challenges and opportunities for the inclusion of women?

Research Question 2: What practices or policies are currently or may be used to recruit and retain women?

Conceptual Framework

Vocational education has remained entrenched in traditionally male-dominated values and perspectives of masculinity. To change educational outcomes, educational practices must also change. Feminist pedagogy is a philosophy that encourages practice with more mindful inclusion of various identities and espouses value of safety, care, and multiculturalism (Engelmann, 2009; Fisher, 2001; hooks, 1994; Lynch, Lyons, & Cantillon, 2007; Maher, 1987). In feminist theory and pedagogy, multiple perspectives co-exist and simultaneously challenge and dismantle traditional power structures.

Vocational education classrooms are a key site for beginning to dismantle traditional, male-dominated power structures. The ways educators and programs operate maintain male-dominated vocations and thus affect students’ career trajectories, program persistence, and income potential. In the classroom, a student’s career aspirations are either reinforced or destroyed. The ways students interact with the educator and other students are influenced by gender and career choice, value placed on care, and support for multicultural, diverse identities. Next, we further explain applications of career choice, care, and multiculturalism.

Career Choice

Notions of gender and career choice begin in childhood and persist into adulthood. An imaginary ideal worker, generally male, affects women’s ability to see themselves in traditionally masculine professions (Sayman, 2007). Refocusing gender expectations and socialization around traditionally male-dominated vocational education programs builds on efforts to expand access to vocations (Olomi & Sinyamule, 2009; Thompson & Dahling, 2010). Changing where women feel accepted and integrated affects the programs women see as possibilities and helps other girls and women to consider corresponding careers as viable options.

Care

Traditional gender norms tend to coalesce around ideas of femininity and motherhood. Caregiver is considered a socially appropriate role for women and is reinforced by patriarchal values (Engelmann, 2009). Efforts to expand vocational education to women through feminist ethics of care broaden this perspective. Care is not singular or gendered, but rather is about considering and meeting students’ needs (Fisher, 2001). Viewing care as gendered limits beneficial and sustainable ways to integrate women and other nongender-conforming people into traditionally male-dominated fields.

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism emphasizes the non-male and non-White learners who are often excluded from vocational education programs. Teaching materials and methods affect the comfort and acceptance of women and diverse learners into vocational education settings (White, Rumsey, & Amidon, 2016). In addition, instructors are often unprepared for classrooms that include diverse learners (hooks, 1994).

Method

In this integrative literature review, we identified, chose, and made meaning of available literature (Torraco, 2005) through the lens of the previously described feminist values embedded in the conceptual framework. We utilized a two-stage data collection process, beginning with a preliminary, exploratory search of specific online databases. A targeted data collection and selection process was followed using purposeful key terms to execute searches in the following four categories: (a) gender, (b) workforce or vocational education, (c) workforce, and (d) diversity. All research team members used the inclusion criteria to screen resulting full-text articles, and reached consensus by discussing differences of opinion. The inclusion criteria for this study were the following: an empirical study presenting results or findings, in the context of post-secondary vocational or workforce education, published in a peer-reviewed journal between 2006 and 2016, and addressing issues of gender or diversity.

The result of our search and subsequent screening process was 19 publications, summarized in Table 1. We applied the matrix method (Garrard, 2004) to analyze data, which is common in systematic literature reviews. The matrix was comprised of data extracted from each publication, including author(s), year of publication, study context (location and industry), study type, a description of population/participants, research questions, purpose, and findings. To validate the data, two researchers independently verified the matrix information from each publication.

Table 1.

Summary of Dataset Publications

Author	Participants and context	Key findings
Arrazola and De Hevia (2006)	Working adults in trade and workforce training programs; Spain	The demand for education has increased and for women, educational attainment is tied to increased earnings.
Butler and Ferrier (2006)	Nontraditional students in trade and workforce training programs; Australia	Policy and practices continue to present barriers to entry and persistence for women in VET.
Catterall, Davis, and Yamg (2014)	Former students of trade and workforce training programs who had transitioned to a university; Australia	Pilot programs that aid in the transition of new students. Information and communication about learning context is needed to support students.
Chatigny, Riel, and Nadon (2012)	Nontraditional students at a vocational training center, which trains students for historically male-dominated career tracks; Canada	Gendered interactions around safety requirements reproduce gender norms that highlight potential safety risks.
Cho, Kalomba, Mobarak, and Orozco (2013)	Adult women participating in trade and workforce training programs; Malawi	Women’s program selection is sensitive to external pressure and plays a role on types of vocational education pursuits.
Ganguli, Hausmann, and Viarengo (2014)	Women in vocational and workforce industries; the United States	Gender, marriage, and children effect participation of women in labor force. A country’s policies are a factor.
Githens, Sauer, Crawford, Cumberland, and Wilson (2014)	Traditional students enrolled in community colleges that offer workforce and trade education programs online; the United States	Learning outcomes were better for students that had regular contact with instructor.
Hilal (2012)	Women and girls working with NGOs that offer workforce and trade vocational education training to promote independence and self-reliance; Palestine	Despite an economically and politically challenging environment, access to and completion of vocational training for some women program graduates led to positive results.
Hodges (2013)	Women, former textile factory workers, preparing for different career paths at a community college; the United States	Women were primarily responsible for forging their own path forward in their industry, without formal support systems.
Lahelma, Lppalainnen, Palmu, and Pehkonen (2014)	Vocational students pursuing careers in health, social services, transport, and technology fields; Finland	Qualities of effective care strategies for educators.
Olomi and Sinyamule (2009)	Adults in a trade and workforce training program; Tanzania	There is a clear indicator of “preferred” industries that women choose to work and build businesses. Yet the desire to grow a career and business through vocational training is not different between genders.
Srivastava and Srivastava (2010)	Women in an NGO’s trade and workforce training program; India	Women with vocational education have higher rates of participation in the workforce in both urban and rural areas.
Tran (2016)	International adult students in trade and workforce training program; Australia	Changes in student make-up requires changes to program structure and pedagogy.
van der Meulen, Yana, Joseph, and Wherry (2006)	Women in trade and workforce training programs for entry into historically male-dominated industries; Taiwan	Sex discrimination persists in vocational schooling, due to program structure, and contributes to wage gap.
Wang, Chao, and Liao (2011)	Adults in trade and workforce training programs; Taiwan	Students who received poststructural feminist instruction outperformed other students using traditional methods.
Wells, Bills, and Devlin (2014)	Adults currently enrolled and employed in workforce and trade educational programs and industries; the United States	Early educational influences affect future career choice.
White, Rumsey, and Amidon (2016)	College students enrolled in technical, business, and writing programs; the United States	Incorporation of multicultural images in training and educational materials.
Yerkes (2010)	Working adults in trade and workforce training programs; Northern Europe	Gender influences caregiving expectations and the labor of vocational instructors.
Jiang and Zhang (2012)	Vocational and technical education adult students, specifically in Electrical Power Engineering; China	Academic goals were linked to interests and social support.

Note. VET = vocational education and training.

Findings

As presented in Table 1, publications represent various nations and perspectives. In this section, we organized findings according to how they addressed values of feminist pedagogy: career choice, care, and multiculturalism. In the following sections, findings are presented according to each of these values.

Career Choice

When considering gender and career choice, education for women has a positive impact on choice of industry and personal earnings. Arrazola and De Hevia (2006) suggested the demand for education for women has increased and, with that increase, there has been an increase in earnings for women choosing a vocational career. Similarly, when women received training in vocational education programs, there is evidence of higher participation in more varied industries (Srivastava & Srivastava, 2010). Hilal (2012) found women who graduated from a vocational education program indicated having positive employment results despite economic and political challenges.

Unfortunately, the findings include the acknowledgment that gender disparity in vocational education and corresponding industries can be damaging to all. Chatigny, Riel, and Nadon (2012) found gendered behaviors, particularly masculine gender norms, resulted in safety risks that endangered everyone. In addition, Hodges (2013) identified women’s responsibility to forge their professional path forward without industry support, resulting in a sense of alienation affecting career choice. These outcomes do not emerge only in adulthood, but rather are learned and reinforced over time. Wells, Bills, and Devlin (2014) identified that early educational influences affect future career choice and identification.

Care

Traditional gender roles derived from traditional ideals are socially and politically enforced. The constraints around acceptable gendered behavior and work have implications for educational policies that serve to uphold traditional gender roles (Butler & Ferrier, 2006). Gender roles and class contribute to social support, expectations of women in vocational education, and women’s participation in male-dominated vocations. As discussed by Wang, Chao, and Liao (2011), applying feminist instruction can lead to all students’ enhanced performance in vocational education programs. Instruction styles are influential in students’ success and decision-making processes.

Findings also indicated women tend to be caregivers in society and within professions (Lahelma, Lappalainen, Palmu, & Pehkonen, 2014). This finding is not unique to one part of the world, but is entrenched in most societies. Yerkes (2010) described traditional gender roles’ influence on caregiving expectations within personal relationships. Such expectations extend into the classrooms for female vocational instructors as well as students.

Jiang and Zhang (2012) described the social pressure on women to develop interests in alignment with social expectations. For women students, pressure manifested as entrepreneurial endeavors aligned with gendered caregiving expectations (Olomi & Sinyamule, 2009). Interest in vocational education does not mitigate the burden of caregiving responsibilities. Cho, Kalomba, Mobarak, and Orozco (2013) found women students in Malawi suffered a larger financial and care burden for attending vocational training compared with male counterparts. Ganguli, Hausmann, and Viarengo (2014) argued issues of gender, marriage, and children are connected to social pressure and have repercussions for women in labor force.

Multiculturalism

Although findings indicated the interwoven relationship between career choice and care, multiculturalism is also evident. The overlap between care and multiculturalism exists in the care required to ensure program efforts are inclusive of multiple identities and cultural contexts. Teaching materials and methods affect the comfort and acceptance of women and diverse learners into vocational education settings (White et al., 2016). Attention to embedded influences on learning is necessary in traditionally male-dominated professions.

Because students are different, it is vital that programmatic efforts and decisions reflect the people being served. Tran (2016) highlighted the relationship between a changing student population and changes in not only pedagogy but also structures and policies. Continuing to perpetuate a traditionally male-dominated program structure is one reason for persistent sex discrimination according to van der Meulen, Yana, Joseph, and Wherry (2006).

As part of changing or evolving structures, vocational education programs need to assist in students’ transitions and creating supportive learning contexts (Catterall, Davis, & Yamg, 2014). Support for students comes in many forms, including interactions with instructors. Githens, Sauer, Crawford, Cumberland, and Wilson (2014) indicated learning outcomes were improved with regular contact with instructors, particularly those sensitive to students’ needs.

Discussion

Gender and career choice, care, and multiculturalism correspond to necessary programmatic transformations. Connecting the literature to actionable changes is especially vital. Although good intentions around inclusion may drive action for change, ultimately change will only be effective when it is lasting, meaningful, and systematic.

To further develop the importance of the present findings, we discuss them in the context of two categories: personal/social interactions and policy/structural support, depicted in Figure 1. Returning to the original research questions, we address these two categories within the context of (a) the challenges and opportunities for the inclusion of women and diverse learners, and (b) the practices or policies that are currently or may be used to recruit and retain women. In addition, to respond to (b), we present a comprehensive checklist that provides readers with concrete and actionable items to assess and inform vocational education programs and practices.

Figure 1.

Personal/social and political/structural categories of change.

Challenges and Opportunities for the Inclusion of Women and Diverse Learners

Policies and practices are entrenched in educational and workplace cultures, which develop over time and require disruption (Bastalich, Franzway, Gill, Mills, & Sharp, 2007). We first address current challenges and opportunities with a view toward disrupting those existing cultures.

Personal/social

Challenges within the personal/social category, as identified in the literature, include role-modeling, testing and educational support, engagement of women and family members, and personal and community beliefs about culture and gender norms. Each of these is discussed in turn.

Regarding role-modeling within programs, vocational education faculty and advisors play a significant role in helping female students identify their educational objectives and career goals (Cho et al., 2013). As in traditional settings, advisors assist students with identifying appropriate course sequences and enrollment and dealing with others issues that may arise. Supporting activities can include notification of special events or outings, career preparation workshops, assistance with selecting an appropriate major, and administering career-placement assessments. Instructors act as role models by exhibiting the skills and behaviors of successful professionals (Githens et al., 2014). These aspects of the personal/social category subsequently affect the testing and educational support for women students and contribute to cultivating an inclusive environment.

Involvement in relevant on-campus activities is critical to ensuring women are successful and possess necessary information and resources. Inclusion can be achieved by guaranteeing local vocational and workforce centers not only offer the required courses but also set aside time and resources to engage students on campus (Jackson & Laanan, 2011). Engagement can be enhanced by providing social opportunities relevant to vocational and workforce education, such as a welders’ club, or an automotive society. Here, all students come together, outside of the classroom, and participate in discussion relating to their coursework or industries of interest. In addition, engaging family members in these activities contributes to countering traditional family and gender norms (Jiang & Zhang, 2012).

Drawing from lessons learned in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, it is likely community colleges’ services for vocational students could expose and recruit women to a broader range of careers. By increasing visibility and targeting women through transfer orientations, field trips, apprenticeships, or co-operative educational opportunities, women students will be aware of industries and their opportunities early in their studies. Early exposure and hands-on experience, however limited, can undeniably influence women’s decisions to enter vocational fields by countering notions of “acceptable” professions. Furthermore, being able to see and participate in these environments could help dispel preconceptions women may have about workforce and vocational industries (Tran, 2016).

Political/structural

Contravening stereotypes can also be supported through political/structural changes. Critical shortfalls exist regarding women’s access to vocational education and viable work upon completion. Human rights and safety are key elements contributing to women’s success in vocational education worldwide (Ganguli et al., 2014; Hilal, 2012). National, institutional, and programmatic policies to support equitable access are fundamental.

Legislation and policy are critical to affording women equal opportunities for vocational training and job placement (Butler & Ferrier, 2006). Low paying jobs in predominantly female-occupied school-based trades, along with a lack of career development, only add to the economic and societal challenges women face (Jiang & Zhang, 2012; Olomi & Sinyamule, 2009). To lessen these challenges, women need greater access to quality training and employment in male-dominated industries, as supported by governmental policy and practice. By supporting women’s access and success in vocational education and into the workplace, communities and nations are investing in their own future. Policy makers play a vital role in social change, as do community support and individual agency in shifting societies’ views of women.

Current Policies and Practices Checklist

As previously mentioned, Table 2 presents a comprehensive checklist to assess programs and inform practice and is aligned with the categories of personal/social interactions and policy/structural support. Considering applications to workforce development and vocational training, community colleges are often excellent examples of how changes to programs can affect local business and industry. Within the U.S. context, community colleges operate using business models similar to industry, yet supportive of risk and innovation as opportunities to learn and develop. For this reason, we look to community colleges, and one author’s personal experience, for inspiration on re-constructing vocational education and recommendations on ways workforce programs can evolve for the inclusion and success of women.

Table 2.

Checklists for Personal/Social and Political/Structural Program Change

Personal/Social Family responsibilities, caregiving, role-modeling, testing and educational support, educational and work environment, community beliefs about culture and gender norms

1. Check that recruiting and promotional items are diverse and reflective of the working population by including more women and people of color in marketing materials (e.g., fliers, videos, and websites).

2. Inquire whether state-mandated vocational and industry councils have women representatives; advocate for diverse membership.

3. Train male personnel to serve as proper role models for male students through regular diversity and equality training.

4. Plan outreach, such as a welding camp, for local high school and middle school female students and their families to expose them to vocational opportunities.

5. Establish regular feedback and networking opportunities for women students and their families throughout the duration of a course and the program.

6. Schedule a woman faculty member or proctor for any mandated testing.

7. Offer a women-only introductory course for multi-layered vocational programs, such as welding, machining, or drafting. Although this will be the only course offered exclusively for women, it will help provide an environment supportive of new women students.

8. Recruit at local high schools and middle schools using women counselors and academic advisors. If possible, visit gender-specific settings, such as private schools or juvenile halls.

9. Organize student field trips to local industry firms, with an emphasis on meeting with women representatives of the respective fields.

10. Invite advanced women students to attend information and recruiting sessions as positive role models for prospective students; compensate them for their time with scholarship opportunities and/or honorariums.

Political/Structural Institutional and national policy to support equitable access, care-oriented policy, educational policy

1. Develop workforce and vocational programs with feedback from current local industry partners. If possible, invite women representatives from these firms to participate in programs.

2. Involve women faculty and staff in program planning. Consider also inviting counseling and community service representatives.

3. Include risk management lessons in all courses, including workplace professionalism and sexual harassment education and awareness.

4. Send women counselors and academic advisors to visit classes throughout the semester as an opportunity for “check-ins.”

5. Ensure that representatives of local and state workforce commissions are part of the course structure and degree plan layout.

6. Invite advanced women students to serve on curriculum teams and councils to provide structural feedback on course and plan development.

7. Hire female faculty, leads, or Chairs with field experience to oversee the execution of the vocational and trade programs.

8. Hire female counselors and academic advisors to help recruit and support women students.

9. Require students to visit a counselor or academic advisor at least twice during their first academic year (two semesters) to ensure students do not “disappear.”

10. Conduct sexual harassment and gender equality training for all students, faculty, and staff.

Conclusion

The checklists in Table 2 do not offer a singular solution but rather concrete and practical strategies to disrupt education for masculinized vocational professions. We view these items as a toolbox from which programs and administrators may draw as needed. In addition, embedded within the checklist items are opportunities for adult educators and practitioners to consider students’ individual identities and perspectives within a larger social context. Disrupting vocational education by broadening the definition of student has value for all educational institutions, industries, and communities.

As previously discussed, gender and career choice, care, and multiculturalism are relevant to the understanding of gender segregation in vocational occupations and education. Building from prior conceptual work (Galvan et al., 2017; Ray et al., 2017), we apply the lens of feminist theory and pedagogy to examine the findings, and discuss them within two categories, personal/social interactions and policy/structural support. As an opportunity for practitioners, including next steps, we identified challenges and opportunities for the inclusion of women and diverse learners. We hope readers will find the checklists useful as a means to judge vocational education programs, support women learners, and inform future work.

Certainly, previous recommendations for trainings are ripe for AE interventions, both in practice and research. Future research should include the study of ways in which AE practices and principles can be applied to workforce and vocational trainings. Further investigation of identity beyond a gender binary is badly needed and should be explored through critical AE perspectives that align with a possible vocational feminist pedagogy for workforce education. Student experiences in training programs and future work behaviors for both women and men are at stake when oppressive structures and behaviors do not shift. The need for action is immediate and the time for action is now if we truly are looking for meaningful change in individual and institutional inclusionary behaviors.

Footnotes

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Jill Zarestky

Author Biographies

Sarah M. Ray, MPA, is a doctoral student in Educational Human Resource Development at Texas A&M University. Her research interests include social justice, community education, global adult education, multiculturalism, race and equity, and feminist teaching perspectives.

Ovidio Galvan, MLA, is the program manager for TRiO Student Support Services at Lone Star College–North Harris, Texas, and a doctoral student in Educational Human Resource Development at Texas A&M University. His research interests include student affairs, workforce, vocation, and trade education programs and social justice.

Jill Zarestky, PhD, is an assistant professor at Colorado State University in the School of Education. Her research interests include nonformal and community-based education; science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education; and issues of feminism, globalization, and social justice.

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