Wikis as Online Collaborative Learning Experiences: “A Different Kind of Brainstorming”

Abstract

Online learning has become an established and customary way for adults to learn. Adult educators are challenged with promoting learner engagement through online collaborative teaching practices, such as wiki-based learning experiences. Although much literature was available regarding use of wikis to promote writing processes among adults, little literature was available that explored how use of wikis promotes the thinking that occurs prior to writing. This study used a convergent parallel mixed methods research design to explore the preliminary perceptions of adult learners who participated in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences as a way to stimulate their thinking for subsequent writing tasks. Participants (n = 25) were graduate-level learners enrolled in an online educational research course. Data were collected via a pre- and post-questionnaire administered at the inception and conclusion of three wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences. Quantitative data were analyzed using paired samples t tests to explore perceptions of usefulness and ease of use, which resulted in two statistically significant findings. Qualitative data were analyzed using descriptive analysis techniques to explore perceptions related to benefits and challenges with wikis to stimulate thinking, which identified four themes. Findings and limitations of this study were discussed, as well as implications for practitioners.

Keywords

wiki adult learning collaborative learning experience online writing ideas

“I learn from what others post and how they post their ideas. It is kind of brainstorming on a higher level.”

Online learning has become an established and customary way for adults to learn. Almost six million adult learners enrolled in at least one online course during the Fall 2014 semester at degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the United States (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). The popularity of online learning has prompted adult educators to revisit their approaches to teaching and learning (Linder-VanBerschot & Summers, 2015; Scanlon, McAndrew, & O’Shea, 2015). Adult educators are challenged with designing online learning environments that promote learner engagement in “highly interactive, online social learning communities” (Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem, & Stevens, 2012, p. 123).

Collaborative teaching practices cultivate learner-centered environments that promote greater academic performance, psychological well-being, and social competence (Laal & Ghodsi, 2012). Adult educators are primarily responsible for establishing such environments where adult learners listen to and value alternate viewpoints, allow others to express opposing thoughts, and engage in interactive conversation rather than solitary expressions (Imel, 1991). Much literature has advocated for the inclusion of collaborative learning experiences among adult learners in traditional, face-to-face learning environments (Bonk & Kim, 2013; Hughes, Arbogast, Kafer, & Chen, 2014; Kelly, 2013; Tibbetts & Hector-Mason, 2015). Use of such practices encourages the construction of “shared knowledge” as learners “make a conscious, continued effort to coordinate their [spoken] language and activity” (Roschelle & Teasley, 1995, p. 94).

However, writing serves as the principal means for communication within online learning environments (Duchardt, Furr, & Horton, 2016) making social interactions primarily asynchronous and text-based (Lapadat, 2002). Thus, adult educators must rely upon the use of digital tools to facilitate collaborative learning experiences in a writing-centric online environment (Carolan & Kyppö, 2015). With digital tools, adult educators are able to refashion collaborative learning experiences for online learning environments (Brindley, Walti, & Blaschke, 2009; Huang, 2002; LeNoue, Hall, & Eighmy, 2011).

Literature has suggested that digital tools, such as wikis, are particularly effective with facilitating online collaborative learning experiences (Parker & Chao, 2007). Researchers have shared that wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences are viewed favorably by adult learners (Deters, Cuthrell, & Stapleton, 2010) and improve collaboration and communication skills (Davidson, 2012), language learning (Zou, Wang, & Xing, 2016), and development of writing skills (Wichmann & Rummel, 2013). Moreover, integrating these experiences among adult learners has the potential to promote development of deeper levels of thinking (Jony, Rahman, & Islam, 2017) and “collaborative creativity” (Parker & Chao, 2007, p. 67), which prepares adult learners for expectations in the business world and professional learning practices (Schreurs et al., 2014).

Existing literature also revealed cautionary aspects related to wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences (Kear, Jones, Holden, & Curcher, 2016). Adult learners may not view wikis as a valuable tool for learning, or they may be inexperienced with how to use wikis (Kear et al., 2016) and prefer to use digital tools with which they are more familiar (Dishaw, Eierman, Iversen, & Philip, 2011). Adult learners may also be reluctant or feel unprepared to participate in wikis (Demirbilek, 2015; Wheeler & Wheeler, 2009), which may lead to different levels of engagement (Biasutti, 2017). In the same way, adult learners may prefer completing required course tasks individually rather than collaboratively (Elola & Oskoz, 2010). It is critical that adult educators take appropriate measures to overcome these potential barriers because realizing full benefits from wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences requires participatory behaviors that entail “mutual engagement and co-ownership” (Li & Zhu, 2017, p. 51). Otherwise, shared wiki contributions merely become “a combination of individual input” (p. 50).

As adult learner enrollment in online learning environments continues to increase, adult educators must persist with investigating ways to establish “highly interactive, online social learning communities” (Boling et al., 2012, p. 123). Although much literature has explored use of wikis to promote writing processes among adult learners (e.g., Li & Zhu, 2017; Lin & Yang, 2011; Wichmann & Rummel, 2013; Zheng, Niiya, & Warschauer, 2015), there was limited literature that explored use of wikis to impact the thinking that occurs prior to writing (Allen & Tay, 2012; Gibbons, 2010). The purpose of this study was to add fresh findings to this underresearched area by exploring the preliminary perceptions of adult learners who participated in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences as a way to stimulate their thinking for subsequent writing tasks.

Relevant Literature and Framework

Wikis are “shared, online writing space” that support collaborative writing among multiple users (Knobel & Lankshear, 2009, p. 631). Wikis are generally topic-specific and may incorporate content in the form of audio, images, text, video, and web links. Wiki users have the ability to add, delete, and modify any content collaboratively. Among adult learners, wikis have been identified as effective digital tools with which to facilitate online collaborative learning experiences (Davidson, 2012; Deters et al., 2010; Jony et al., 2017; Parker & Chao, 2007; Zou et al., 2016).

The act of writing consists of various processes that a writer utilizes flexibly and recursively (L. A. Sharp, 2016). The process that precedes writing has been referred to as prewriting (Emig, 1971; Perl, 1979; Rohman & Wlecke, 1964), preparation (Emig, 1983), topic discovery (Murray, 1968), planning (Hayes & Flower, 1986, 1987), percolating (Mayher, Lester, & Pradl, 1983), idea generation (Langer, 1986), and brainstorming (Atwell, 1985). This process has also been regarded as the most critical aspect of writing (Rohman & Wlecke, 1964) during which writers engage in various discourses to incite thinking, such as talking (Abbott, 1989; Carroll, 1981; Hagaman, 1986; Neumann & McDonough, 2015; Shi, 1998; Sperling, 1995; Zoellner, 1969). However, writing is the predominant discourse in an online learning environment (Duchardt et al., 2016); thus, dialogue occurs asynchronously through written text (Lapadat, 2002). Digital tools, such as wikis, enable adult educators to refashion talk-driven classroom discourse into online written social exchanges (Carolan & Kyppö, 2015).

Although much literature has explored using wikis during various processes associated with writing (e.g., Li & Zhu, 2017; Lin & Yang, 2011; Wichmann & Rummel, 2013; Zheng et al., 2015), only a limited amount of literature explored how wikis may stimulate the thinking that occurs prior to writing. For example, Gibbons (2010) incorporated use of a wiki with one of his high school classes during each phase of writing and compared their attitudes and behaviors with a different class that used traditional methods of writing. During the initial phase of writing, Gibbons observed a greater level of comfort among students who used the wiki and noted that they “were more willing to share and contribute than the students who did not use the wiki” (p. 36). Similarly, Allen and Tay (2012) explored the attitudes and behaviors of adult learners and reported that students viewed use of the wiki as beneficial while they reviewed and developed their ideas prior to writing. However, Allen and Tay focused their research on individual tasks rather than collaborative writing.

The present study sought to extend these findings and was guided by a framework anchored in sociocultural understandings (Vygotsky, 1978) and andragogy (Knowles, 1984; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2012). According to Vygotsky (1978), engagement with socially driven learning experiences promotes individual and collective cognitive understandings. Each individual possesses a unique “relational identity” that is developed during their lives through a variety of experiences (Gee, 2017; Knowles, 1973). Hence, when individuals come together to engage in self-directed virtual collaborative learning experiences, adult learners thrive (Knowles, 1973) when their interactions are grounded in cultural contexts (Street, 1995). Through these collaborative learning experiences, meaning is socially constructed in a joint manner through the contributions of each individual. Understandings of andragogy also suggest the best adult learning environments are collaborative, goal-oriented, and engage learners with problem-solving tasks situated in real-world contexts that promote self-reflection (Knowles, 1973, 1984; Knowles et al., 2012).

The present study also considered understandings related to technology acceptance. Although various models have identified a number of determinants associated with continued use of a specific technology tool (J. H. Sharp, 2007), this study considered determinants from the original Technology Acceptance Model: usefulness and ease of use (Davis, 1989). These two constructs have been linked to attitudes toward use of digital tools among adult learners (Park, 2009), including wikis (Liu, 2010). Liu reported that adult learner “who believe that wikis are easy to use and useful for them will be more likely to use the technology and to use the technology more frequently” than adult learners “who believed that wikis were difficult to use and not useful” (p. 63).

Method

Context

The present study was employed in an online graduate course offered in the education department at a regional, public university in the Southern United States. The course, which was entitled Educational Research, addressed methods of research conducted in educational settings and consisted of seven lessons that addressed specific course learning outcomes. Each lesson contained a lecture, designated readings, a small group collaborative learning experience, and an individually constructed writing assignment that students were instructed to complete in a sequential manner.

Participants

The present study was conducted during a 16-week semester. A recruitment email was sent to students at the beginning of the semester. Out of 26 enrolled students, 25 students provided consent and indicated their previous academic and nonacademic uses with wikis. As shown in Table 1, none of the participants had previous experience with wikis in academic settings, and only one participant had previous experience in nonacademic settings.

Table 1.

Characteristics of Participants

Characteristics	n
Semester
Fall 2016	25
Gender
Male	12
Female	13
Previous experience with wikis	Yes	No
Academic Settings	0	25
Nonacademic settings	1	24

Procedures

Three wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences were implemented during three different lessons that addressed each type of research design: quantitative designs in Lesson 4, qualitative designs in Lesson 5, and mixed methods designs in Lesson 6. As part of each of these lessons, the wiki-based online collaborative learning experience was designed to stimulate thinking with the specific type of research design under study prior to engagement with the lesson assignment. Wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences were created using the wiki tool available in the Blackboard 9.1 learning management system. For each lesson, three different wikis were created and six to eight participants were randomly assigned to each.

Once a lesson became accessible, participants first viewed the lecture and completed the assigned course text readings. Next, participants were provided access to their assigned wiki and instructed to review the directions and assessment criteria before participating. Within their assigned wiki, participants were expected to add content (i.e., original text, revised text, edited text) and extension elements (i.e., formatting existing text; inserting links, images, multimedia, mash-ups, attachments) that addressed the specific guiding questions. Once participants completed the wiki-based online collaborative learning experience, they had access to the lesson assignment, which was an individually constructed writing task.

Data Collection and Analysis

The present study employed a convergent parallel mixed method research design that collected quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously using pre- and post-questionnaires (Creswell, 2014). By using a mixed methods approach, the quantitative and qualitative data offered validation for one another and established a solid foundation for understandings related to participation in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences as a stimulus for subsequent writing tasks. The pre-questionnaire was administered to participants at the beginning of Lesson 4, and the post-questionnaire was administered at the conclusion of Lesson 6. In addition to two questions intended to elicit prior academic and nonacademic experiences with wikis, the pre- and post-questionnaires consisted of (a) two Likert-type-scale items to indicate perceptions of usefulness and ease of use with wikis, and (b) two open-ended responses to indicate thoughts regarding the benefits and challenges of using a wiki as a collaborative digital tool to stimulate thinking for subsequent individually constructed writing tasks (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Pre- and post-questionnaires.

Quantitative data collected were analyzed using paired sample t test statistical analyses with IBM® SPSS Statistics® software. The following null hypotheses were established:

Hypothesis 01 (H01): There is no difference with user perceptions before and after participating in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences regarding usefulness.

Hypothesis 02 (H02): There is no difference with user perceptions before and after participating in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences regarding ease of use.

Prior to conducting statistical analyses, data were inspected to confirm that assumptions were satisfied. After this confirmation, statistical significance was set at α < .05, β = .20 (Cohen, 1992). For findings that showed statistical significance, effect sizes were reported as small (.20), medium (.50), or large (.80).

Descriptive analysis techniques were used to interpret qualitative data and generate overarching themes (Elliott & Timulak, 2005). Qualitative data were analyzed and coded during three independent reviews (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). During the first review, initial concepts present in the data were labeled with open coding. During the second review, axial coding was used to confirm the accuracy of codes and group like codes into themes. During the third review, codes within each theme were reviewed to identify the presence of subthemes. Validity was established by conducting member checks to discuss the data, analyses, and interpretations.

Quantitative Findings

Participants rated their perceptions of usefulness with wikis higher after participation in the wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences (M = 4.25, SD = .94) than they did before (M = 2.96, SD = 1.20). As shown in Table 2, further analysis of the data revealed that a statistically significant difference was present, which rejected the null hypothesis; t(24) = 4.74, p = .00. Cohen’s d was calculated at 1.20, which was considered a large effect (Cohen, 1992).

Table 2.

Quantitative Results

	M	SD	Confidence levels		t	df	p
	M	SD	Upper limit	Lower limit	t	df	p
Perceived usefulness	2.17	1.31	2.72	1.61	8.12	24	.00
Perceived ease of use	1.29	1.33	1.86	.73	4.74	24	.00

Similarly, participants rated their perceptions of ease of use with wikis higher after participation in the wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences (M = 4.29, SD = .55) than they did before (M = 2.13, SD = 1.23). Further analysis of the data revealed that a statistically significant difference was present, which rejected the null hypothesis; t(24) = 8.12, p = .00. Cohen’s d was calculated at 2.27, which was considered a large effect (Cohen, 1992).

Qualitative Findings

Qualitative data analyses produced four themes regarding perceptions of wikis as a collaborative digital tool to stimulate thinking for subsequent individually constructed writing tasks. These themes were Positive Attitudes & Perceived Benefits, Challenges Associated With Wiki Use, Doubts & Uncertainties, and Recommendations for Future Wiki Use (see Table 3).

Table 3.

Qualitative Statements by Theme

Theme	Number of statements (pre-questionnaire)	Number of statements (post-questionnaire)
Positive Attitudes & Perceived Benefits	30	23
Challenges Associated with Wiki Use	0	23
Doubts & Uncertainties	19	2
Recommendations for Future Wiki Use	0	7

Positive Attitudes & Perceived Benefits

Participants made a total of 53 statements (30 on the pre-questionnaire, 23 on the post-questionnaire) that described their initial or closing attitudes and perceived benefits of the wiki. For example, on the pre-questionnaire three participants indicated that they were “confident,” “excited,” and expected the wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences to be “interesting.” Although two participants expressed nervousness due to unfamiliarity with wikis, they also anticipated that the experience “should be interesting” and they expected to “get knowledge out of the process.” Prior to using the wiki, 12 participants also recognized the collaborative potential of the wiki (e.g., “get some feedback from your circle of collaborators”).

On the post-questionnaire, 14 participants acknowledged the connection between collaborating on the wiki and the successive writing task for the lesson. For example, one participant reported, “I learn from what others post and how they post their ideas. It is kind of brainstorming on a higher level. It allowed me to see and understand a different perspective or view.” Similarly, another participant emphasized the benefits associated with use of the wiki when compared with online discussion boards:

I found it to be better than a forum where each person adds to the discussion and reads a few of the others’ posts. With the wiki we all have a chance to read everyone’s work, edit, and add to it. I like that we end up with one collaborative piece rather than several forum threads that all say similar things.

Challenges Associated With Wiki Use

Participants made a total of 23 statements on the post-questionnaire that described specific challenges associated with the wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences. Although eight participants referred to challenges associated with technical aspects of the wiki (e.g., “adding a photo,” “editing after initial post,” “positioning content on the wiki page”), 15 participants identified challenges that were related to “learning how to work together as a team to co-construct content.” For example, one participant expressed hesitancy with editing content posted by peers:

The wiki on mixed methods seemed a little scattered, but I didn’t want to step on any toes by altering someone else’s work. For instance, I did not see anything about “Triangulation” in the chapter we read, but I didn’t delete it because maybe I missed something.

Another participant described challenges that they encountered associated with working from someone else’s ideas: “By not being the first person to construct the wiki page, sometimes I felt as though the content was maybe not put in the correct manner.”

Doubts & Uncertainties

Participants made a total of 21 statements that articulated doubts and uncertainties associated with the wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences. On the pre-questionnaire, 15 participants expressed initial doubts and uncertainties that were primarily related to unfamiliarity with wikis and their functionality (e.g., “understanding the logistics of getting the site together”). However, four participants also expressed initial doubts and uncertainties related to

lack of technology competence: (e.g., “I am very concerned about this task. I am not a technology savvy person, so I am not confident in my ability to construct this tool.”);

preconceived notions regarding wikis: (e.g., “I am not all that sure and confident about using Wiki. To be honest throughout my professional educational experience as a teacher, and as an undergraduate and graduate student, Wiki was not considered academically accepted resource. I guess I am a little skeptical above using it for those reasons.”);

the collaborative nature of wikis: (e.g., “I typically do not like having graded assignments that require me to depend on other members of a group to be responsible for any portion of it.”); and

immediate rejection of the experience: (e.g., “Not a productive use of my time for this class.”).

After participating in the experiences, only two participants made disapproving statements on the post-questionnaire. For example, one participant shared, “It’s not collaborative at all. It’s just a group of people putting things out there in the same wiki.” Likewise, another participant stated, “Cognitive dissonance is my greatest challenge: trying to fulfill a collaborative assignment in an environment that is not setup for successful collaboration.”

Recommendations for Future Wiki Use

Seven participants made statements on the post-questionnaire that delineated specific recommendations for future wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences. These recommendations included the importance of active and timely participation, having a level of trust, and understanding the expectations for wiki participation and assessment criteria.

Discussion

The purpose of the present study was to investigate preliminary perceptions of adult learners who participated in wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences as a way to stimulate thinking for individually constructed writings. Because the majority of participants had no previous experiences with wikis, the quantitative findings pointed to important understandings regarding technology acceptance. As noted in the original Technology Acceptance Model, user attitude toward digital tools is driven by their perceptions of usefulness and ease of use (Davis, 1989). Because user attitude is the chief determinant for acceptance of a specific technology tool, it should be considered “as early as possible in the design process” (Davis, 1993, p. 484). By doing so, adult educators may diminish rejection of new technology tools among adult learners by identifying and developing techniques to encourage their acceptance (Davis, 1993; Liu, 2010; Park, 2009).

Qualitative findings from the present study confirmed these quantitative findings and also revealed fresh insights regarding use of wikis to stimulate thinking for individually constructed writings. Analysis of data demonstrated greater levels of positivity among participants than reservations. Many of the reservations stemmed from lack of experience and unfamiliarity with wikis. Despite these expressions on the pre-questionnaire, participants approached wiki-based collaborative learning experiences optimistically and recognized the value of working collaboratively with peers.

As evidenced on the post-questionnaires, participants maintained optimistic views toward the wiki-based collaborative learning experiences and recognized them as valuable tools that promoted peer collaboration. Fourteen participants made explicit connections between their participation and the stimulation of ideas for the subsequent writing task. For example, one participant commented, “It is kind of brainstorming on a higher level. It allowed me to see and understand a different perspective or view.” This finding was aligned with previously published studies that reported adult learners believed collaborative learning experiences in online learning environments led to greater levels of learning than individual learning tasks (Ku, Tseng, & Akarasriworn, 2013; MacNeill, Telner, Sparaggis-Agaliotis, & Hanna, 2014).

Implications

Findings from the present study also lead to several implications for adult educators who are interested in using wiki-based online collaborative learning experiences as a way to stimulate thinking for individually constructed writing tasks. First, adult learners must view participation in the wiki as useful to their learning (Davis, 1989, 1993; Liu, 2010; Park, 2009). With this in mind, adult educators should begin by identifying a major course-related writing task and design a wiki-based prewriting activity to stimulate initial thinking among small groups of learners. Adult learners are goal-oriented (Knowles, 1973) and value collaborative prewriting that leads to completion of the task. This collaborative learning experience may prompt adult learners to share original ideas they have for the writing task (Kost, 2011) or prepare of the writing task by engaging in peer discussion and self-reflection to deepen conceptual understandings of course content (Higdon & Topaz, 2009).

Adult learners must also experience ease of use when they use features associated with the wiki platform (Davis, 1989, 1993; Liu, 2010; Park, 2009). Therefore, adult educators should consider the technology proficiency of each learner in their course, as well as their previous experiences with wikis (Page & Reynolds, 2015). Adult educators might ascertain this information early on and create balanced small groups for wiki-based collaborative learning experiences that include adult learners with varying levels of experience. In addition, to enhance familiarity with the selected wiki platform, adult educators might consider incorporating an initial nongraded wiki task prior to employing a graded wiki task to foster stronger perceptions toward ease of use with wikis among adult learners.

Finally, findings from this study highlighted several challenges perceived by adult learners associated with wikis as a collaborative digital tool. To address these challenges, adult educators might consider providing their learners with access to resources that demonstrate aspects of wiki usage (Page & Reynolds, 2015). These resources may include YouTube videos, learning management system tutorials, or educator-created audio or video podcasts.

Limitations

As with any research endeavor, there were a few limitations present with the present study. First, findings were not generalizable due to the small sample size. Although these findings have added fresh insights to an underresearched area, it is recommended that future studies replicate efforts with a larger sample of adult learners. The present study also limited its investigation to preliminary perceptions regarding usefulness and ease of use among participants. Because the results of the quantitative analysis indicated statistical significance with both of these constructs, it is recommended that follow-up studies explore perceptions with usefulness and ease of use among adult learners more comprehensively. In addition, the present study did not consider the impact that participation in wiki-based collaborative learning experiences had on actual writing products. It is recommended that follow-up studies be conducted to extend findings reported in the present study and explore this phenomenon.

Conclusion

The prevalence of online learning challenges adult educators to create online learning environments that merge adult learning theory and practices (Milheim, 2011). Just as adult learning theory informs adult educators of effective practices, such as collaborative learning, in traditional face-to-face learning environments, adult learning theory should also undergird online teaching practices. By doing so, adult educators consider both the distinct characteristics of online learning (Milheim, 2011), as well as the shifting demographics of adult learners in postsecondary contexts (Osam, Bergman, & Cumberland, 2017). As more nontraditional students return to school, adult educators must consider and address the distinct characteristics of adult learners (Knowles, 1984; Knowles et al., 2012) within online learning environments (Milheim, 2011). Use of online collaborative teaching practices, such as wiki-based learning experiences, empowers adult learners “to acquire insights into the potential and power of groups as well as develop their independence as learners” (Imel, 1991).

Footnotes

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Authors Biographies

Laurie A. Sharp, EdD, is the Dr. John G. O’Brien Distinguished Chair in Education at West Texas A&M University, Canyon, Texas.

Brigette Whaley, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education at West Texas A&M University, Canyon, Texas.

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