Abstract
Older adults are a growing population. This article reviews the literature on older adults in Adult Learning from its inception in 1989 through 2020. Topics focus primarily on program reports, programmatic learning needs, personal reflections, and classroom methods. Key findings include that “older adult” is not well-defined and adults are portrayed as active learners. In addition, the demographics of authors and study participants are discussed. Findings have implications for researchers and practitioners.
“ Adult educators need to attract a more diverse population to nonformal settings such as OLLIs and LIRs”
The learning and education of the increasing older adult population warrant attention. In the United States, individuals aged 65 and older will outnumber those under 18 by 2034 (US Census Bureau, 2018). As adult learning is lifelong, the journal Adult Learning has shown interest in the learning and education of all adults, including older adults, over the last 30 years, offering the first special issue on older adults during its first year (1989). Nevertheless, an integrative review of articles on older adults in Adult Learning has not been done. A comprehensive review of the journal’s articles concerning older adults from its inception until 2020 could provide readers an overview of the topics addressed, address trends in the literature, and inform future research on older adults.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to review articles concerning “older adults” since the journal’s inception. Specifically, we wanted to know (1) what categories of literature are covered? (2) how is the term older adults defined? (3) how are older adults portrayed? and (4) how may positionalities marginalize adult learners?
We view these articles through a critical lens. Brookfield (2005) discusses four traditions of criticality; “ideology critique” (italics in original, p. 13) focuses on the concept of hegemony and the idea that “people are convinced to embrace dominant ideologies as always being in their own best interests” (p. 13). Our critical lens encompasses the ideas of intersectionality (Collins & Bilge, 2020), diversity, and inclusion (Ferdman, 1995). Namely, we understand that various positionalities intersect to advantage and disadvantage individuals in particular ways (Collins & Bilge, 2020) and look at the diversity of topics, authors, and participants.
Methods
Using an integrated literature review (Torraco, 2016), initially, we searched databases using the following keywords: older adult, older adults, elder, third age, late-life, senior, or older people. Later, we did a hand search of all the issues released from the journal’s inception in 1989 through 2020 to ensure we had not missed any relevant articles. We included empirical and non-empirical articles that discussed issues related to older adults. We excluded book reviews. We included one journal article that discussed intergenerational college programming for younger and older adults (Bass, 1992) and an article that discussed older learners in higher education where participants were 25–64 years old (Cummins et al., 2019). Twenty-three articles were included for analysis.
We first assessed all 23 publications by reading the full text and developed a matrix indicating the selected articles for data analysis, including the main topic, purpose, research methods, participant demographics, definitions of older adults in the article, the portrayal of older adults, key findings, and discussion. Then, in the coding process, we used the techniques of inductive thematic analysis to identify emerging themes, and we achieved agreement through regular meetings.
Overview of Research
Adult Learning has covered numerous topics concerning older adults. The third issue of the first volume was devoted to the subject; hence, six articles concerned older adults in 1989. In the 1990s, authors penned eight articles, while only one was written in the 2000s. In the 2010s, eight were written. Of the 23 pieces, we found nine empirical articles (five qualitative and four quantitative), five of which were published in the 2010s. Categories included program reports (Bass, 1992; Bennet, 1992; Cummins et al., 2019; Golding, 2015; Hentschel & Eisen, 2002; Kinney, 1989; Lee et al., 2018; Murk, 1994; Stuen & Kaye, 1990; Truluck et al., 2010), personal reflections on learning (Horton, 2010; Knowles, 1989; Merrill, 2012), programmatic learning needs (Feldman & Sweeney, 1989; D. J. Kreitlow & Kreitlow, 1989; Thorson, 1989), classroom methods (Chamberlain & Fetterman, 1999; Wolf, 1992, 1993), and others (Helterbran, 2017; Reio & Sanders-Reio, 1999; Zacharakis, 2019).
Author affiliations and geographic locations varied like the topics, although there was little racial diversity in authors. Faculty and staff affiliated with educational institutions authored most articles. Institutional affiliation was primarily from the Midwest, including the University of Wisconsin, Miami University—Ohio, University of Michigan, University of Toledo, OH, Ball State University, Indiana University of Ohio, Indiana University-Purdue, the University of Nebraska at Omaha, and the University of Nebraska—Lincoln, and Kansas State University. The northeast was also well-represented with author affiliations from St. Joseph College in West Hartford, CT; University of Maryland; University of Vermont; Indiana University of Pennsylvania; and the University of Massachusetts. Southeastern universities included the University of Southern Florida, the University of Georgia, and North Carolina State University. One western school was represented with the University of California—Riverside. One author was a lecturer at Dong-Eui University in South Korea. Several authors were directors at institutions, including the Lighthouse for Vision and Aging in New York, NY; the Third Age Program of Leadership in Hartford, CT; and the director of workforce development for the Connecticut Technology Council. Most of the authors appeared to be White men and women. Two authors were Korean, and one was Iranian.
Findings
Our findings include the categories of literature. We also discuss how older adults are portrayed in the literature, how older adult is defined, and how positionalities affect adult learners.
Categories of Literature
The categories of literature can be summarized as program reports, programmatic learning needs, personal reflections on learning, classroom methods, and others. The following section will elaborate on the content of these studies.
Program Reports. Researchers focused on centers for nonformal learning for older adults such as Elderhostel (now Road Scholar), Learning in Retirement Centers (LIR), or Osher Lifelong Learning Institutes (OLLIs). Lee et al. (2018) compared the demographics of national OLLI participants with those in Florida using the Demographic and Behavioral Trends Survey (DBTS) and added four open-ended questions. The national sample had more 55- to 69-year-olds and full-time and part-time workers than the Florida sample. They noted that more individuals in OLLI programs are familiar with technology and may want technology courses to improve their technology skills. Truluck et al. (2010) received 224 surveys from LIR participants at one location. Researchers tracked participation rates, wishes for future course offerings, members’ perceptions of the importance of courses, and volunteer roles within the organization. Of note, 79% of participants were between the ages of 60–79, 79.7% possessed bachelor’s degrees or higher, and participants were most interested in academic classes. Bennet (1992) discussed how the concepts she taught in her philosophy course to Elderhostel participants related to everyday life.
Additionally, course members showed improved reading comprehension, vocabulary, and self-esteem. Murk (1994) reported on the Elderhostel program held at Ball State University in Muncie, IN. He briefly discussed the program’s history, summarized program participant demographics from the preceding decade (67% women, the average age is 71), the benefits to faculty and program participants, and a description of program courses offered for the 2-week summer program in 1992. Kinney (1989) reported on the benefits of Elderhostels to participants and institutions focusing on a program at the University of Toledo.
Another setting for nonformal learning is Men’s Sheds. Golding (2015) reported on the Men’s Shed programs that started in Australia in 1997 and are now in Ireland, the UK, New Zealand, Canada, Denmark, and Sweden, totaling 1416 Men’s Sheds open worldwide. Men’s Sheds serve older men who are “less likely to participate in formal education programs” (p. 171). Men who want to socialize and connect to the community but do not want a more formal learning environment are attracted to Men’s Sheds. These Sheds cater to community needs that may focus on “practicing hands-on skills and former trades, such as woodwork” (p. 171). The community centers are not based on the deficit or ageist models—“treating older men as students, clients, or customers” (p. 170)—but rather on facilitators who determine if the equipment is safe and address men’s needs.
Additional program reports included Hentschel and Eisen’s (2002) article describing leadership development for older adults and Bass’s (1992) gerontology certificate program. Hentschel and Eisen’s program uses an “action learning approach to leadership development” (p. 12), and participants range in age from 48 to 68. The program “engage[s] participants as policymakers, change agents, program developers, and project managers, and connect [s] them to organizations and agencies that will fully use their wisdom and experience” (p. 13). Program participants learn of local community needs and build their leadership skills. They form teams to address issues, such as voter education, childhood literacy, and neighborhood restoration. Seventy percent of the program participants report leadership in additional projects (Hentschel & Eisen, 2002). Bass (1992) described a gerontology certificate program at the University of Massachusetts—Boston that focused on training older adults for “careers in gerontology” (p. 22). Unlike the standard college curriculum, instructors did not assign grades, but competencies had to be met (Bass, 1992). Individuals 60 and older were given free tuition. Classes scheduled between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to avoid rush hour. In these intergenerational courses, at least 2/3 of the attendees were 60 years old (Bass, 1992).
Most program reports did not discuss technology. However, Chamberlain and Fetterman (1999) discussed a 1-day interactive television seminar for older adults in Vermont where participants learned about an economic housing opportunity in the state. The program was distributed via interactive television to 12 sites across Vermont. The authors considered the educational program successful based on 61 inquiries about this type of housing after the event.
Programmatic Learning Needs. While reports on programs comprised much of the literature on older adults, several authors discussed meeting the programmatic learning needs of older adults (Feldman & Sweeney, 1989; B. W. Kreitlow, 1989; D. J. Kreitlow & Kreitlow, 1989; Thorson, 1989). Authors cited the growing population of older adults and the need for less-educated adults to receive more education to meet “age-related needs” (Feldman & Sweeney, 1989, p. 14). B. W. Kreitlow (1989) urged educators not to view older adults through a deficit model, imploring younger adults to interview older adult learners, such as “farmers, author workers, bankers, and others” (p. 7), about retirement fields, “and determine what makes some of them Soar” (p. 7). He concluded that more research was needed on older adults.
Thorson (1989) discusses the need for classes on caring for older parents. He suggested courses on caring for older parents can help caregivers understand “life reviewing, development in later life, social delivery systems, and common crises such as dealing with dementia” (p. 20). Thorsen predicts these courses will be increasingly common.
In contrast, D. J. Kreitlow and Kreitlow (1989) wrote about careers for people over 60. They discuss the need for educators to provide resources and education for retirees. They cited characteristics of those who consider themselves to have the positives of retirement. They found those who have successful “retirement careers” are “helpful, concern [ed] for others, busy and active, purposeful and productive, serene and happy, independent, curious, motivated [and] take citizenship seriously” in retirement (pp. 10–11). They featured a retirement career profile conceptualized by Allan Pevoto and themselves that ranged from people that categorized retirees in various categories from “regressive (disengaged), neutral (self-centered), growth (contributor) and soaring (self-actualized)” (p. 12). This profile can help adult educators place learners in a category and provide resources to grow and develop in their retirement careers.
Personal Reflections on Learning. Authors’ attention turned from program reports and program needs to personal reflections on learning for the three White male authors. Horton (2010) reflected on his experiences as a middle-aged undergraduate and graduate student. He lamented the lack of mentoring he received regarding publishing and writing articles. He cited his proximity in age to his professors as problematic in receiving mentoring and job offers. Likewise, Knowles (1989) reflected on his learning after retirement, including writing, reading, conference attendance, and invitations to give workshops. He said, “Perhaps the main thing I have learned about my learning is that every person and every experience can be a resource for learning, provided I maintain the stance of a proactive learner” (p. 9). Last, Merrill (2012) described his life journey from childhood to adulthood and discussed his learning along the way.
Classroom Methods. In addition to program reports, programmatic learning needs, and personal reflections on learning, Wolf (1992, 1993) wrote two articles about methods used in the classroom. First, Wolf (1992) examined the use of reminiscence in the classroom, asserting that memories help older people cope, make meaning, and “pave the path of old age” (p. 20). To “facilitate reminiscence in a workshop setting” (p. 20), Wolf provided activities for those who work with older adults, including doing a life review in 10-year increments and creating maps “of their childhood neighborhoods as they recollect these places at a particular age (usually nine or twelve)” (p. 20). Wolf emphasized the need for a safe environment for participants to build on their memories but is not patronizing. She also provided several book resources that discuss classroom strategies to foster reminiscence.
A year later, Wolf (1993) reported on her study of mentoring middle-aged women in the classroom. She said that most mentoring models are based on men’s experiences and that women’s mentoring may include relationship building and “not the classic mentor-protégé model Levinson described for men” (p. 9). Wolf posed two research questions: “How does mentoring work for women in adult learning situations? What part does the female teacher of adult women play in the dynamic of mentoring?” (p. 9). Two hundred forty women aged 34–64 enrolled in a human development/gerontology program completed a survey. Some students had been out of the academic environment for some time and experienced a “loss of confidence” (p. 9). However, participants reported that the relational connections between their women professors helped some students regain confidence, as written in several journal entries describing fears of failing and isolation. In addition, the relationship with their instructor gave them the confidence to persist in their studies.
Other. Articles that fell outside the categories mentioned above include an article that discussed workplace ageism (Reio & Sanders-Reio, 1999) and an empirical study on lessons in lifelong learning through play (Zacharakis, 2019) and earning a bachelor’s degree in retirement (Helterbran, 2017). Reio and Sanders-Reio discuss the prevalence of ageism in the workplace, ageist myths and show the importance of older workers. The authors provide ways adult educators can combat ageism.
Zacharakis (2019) interviewed six individuals who learned how to ride a motorcycle to see how they learned through play. He uncovered several themes, including individuals being “active and continuous learners” (p. 176), the social nature of learning, their desire for the challenge of new knowledge, their passion for motorcycling and, the fact that they did not see learning how to motorcycle as “learning per se” (p. 176). Zacharakis (2019) noted that Bandura's (1977) social learning theory fits well with the learning done by participants because Bandura notes the importance of observation and the social aspect of learning in his theory. “All six interviewed found the social aspect of this hobby to be an important part of their enjoyment and motivation” (p. 190). Zacharakis (2019) notes the informal and incidental learning that occurs for motorcyclists. This learning “may be taken for granted, tacit or unconscious” (p. 181).
Helterbran (2017) wanted to know what motivated individuals over age 65 to earn a bachelor’s degree. He interviewed four men and found three themes. First, men were motivated to obtain their bachelor’s degrees because they wanted to finish “unfinished business.” They had not attended college for various reasons, and they wanted to complete a dream they had for themselves. Second, they wanted to prove to themselves that they could complete a college degree. Third, they had a “sense of legacy” (p. 15) in that they passed on their experience and knowledge to younger learners and felt very well received by their younger classmates. They mentored the younger learners and enjoyed the “friendship, collegiality, and being exposed to a different generation’s point of view” (p. 16).
How Older Adult is Defined
While authors’ topics on older adults were easily defined, the definition of the term “older adult” varied. Sometimes, the term was not explicitly defined (Chamberlain & Fetterman, 1999). For example, personal reflections on learning by retired authors did not mention or specify an age for older adults (Bennet, 1992; Knowles, 1989; Merrill, 2012; Wolf, 1992). The minimum age for an older adult was mentioned in most articles, but a precise reason for that age being considered an “older adult” was not discussed. For example, Lee et al.’s (2018) study on learner profile differences in Florida and the national OLLIs gives an age range of participants from 55 to 85 years old. Likewise, an article concerning Elderhostel programs set the minimum participant age at 60 (Kinney, 1989; Murk, 1994). Hentschel and Eisen’s (2002) study on developing older adults as community leaders included “third age” individuals that ranged from 48 to 88 years old. The “Third Age” is generally the age of retirement until one grows infirm (Third Age Community, 2020). Zacharakis (2019) interviewed individuals aged 60 but did not explain why that age constituted an “older adult.”
This trend of setting minimum ages but not giving a precise reason for the age is seen in additional studies. Truluck et al. (2010) surveyed 53- to 94-year-olds who attended courses at the LIR center, while D. J. Kreitlow and Kreitlow (1989) discuss developing a career profile for individuals over 60. When examining racism, Reio and Sanders-Reio (1999) noted that managers surveyed in a study at the University of Akron reported that “training is problematic for employees between ages 40 and 60” (p. 10). The authors say, “First, older workers, defined in the training literature as those age 45 and over, perform well. . . In fact, even workers between the ages of 60 and 75 demonstrate that they are functionally able to produce in many different occupations” (p. 11). These articles suggest that “older workers” depend on the individual study and start, minimally, at 45.
Age 65 is given as a minimum age for the older adult, as this has been the typical age for retirement (Feldman & Sweeney, 1989; Helterbran, 2017). Some articles on “older adults” in higher education set the age range from 25 to 64, with authors seeing the differences between students 25–39 and 40–64 (Cummins et al., 2019). When discussing mentoring middle-aged women in the classroom, Wolf (1993) does not define the term “middle-aged” but mentions a study participant who is 52. An author reflects on being mentored as a middle-aged adult and says he started his higher education in his mid-40s (Horton, 2010). Stuen and Kaye (1990) report that the average person who participates in the Columbia Linkage Project is White, male, and 75.
How Older Adults are Portrayed
Although, authors were inconsistent in their definition of “older adult,” researchers consistently portrayed older adults as active and engaged. A few articles briefly mentioned physical limitations.
Active. Older adults are mostly portrayed as active with few physical limitations (Chen et al., 2008). The studies that focused on LIR or participants in OLLI describe participants as interested in the activities and courses offered (Bass, 1992; Bennet, 1992; Kinney, 1989; Lee et al., 2018; Murk, 1994; Truluck et al., 2010). In her description of teaching a philosophy course to Elderhostel participants, Bennet (1992) stated, “The enthusiasm to explore new ideas is characteristic of the Elderhostel audience and make them ideal students” (p. 21). Participants in Hentschel and Eisen’s (2002) program that developed older adult community leaders showed participants actively involved in their communities. Authors who reflected on their learning shared their activities, such as writing, reading, conferences, workshops, and travel (Knowles, 1989). Merrill (2012) walked readers through his life in five acts, describing his active learning along the way. Horton (2010) showed his interest in pursuing formal education as an older adult. Last, Zacharakis (2019) described active motorcycle enthusiasts. He talked to an individual who started motorcycling and taking cross-country trips at age 70. An 82-year-old participant was an “expert trials rider” (p. 179). Another participant regularly entered the “Pikes Peak International Hill Climb” (p. 179). All six of his participants were active physically and mentally.
Brief Acknowledgment of Physical Challenges. Although most authors discussed older adults as being vibrant, Kinney (1989) alluded to physical challenges some Elderhostel members may have faced when she said, “Personal issues are often addressed. . . . Since most public institutions are handicap-equipped, handicapped or otherwise, isolated persons can usually be accommodated” (p. 23). These accommodations that allow participation are essential for individuals, as noted by one member: “The opportunity to think and learn about things I didn’t have time for before has been wonderful” (p. 23). Golding (2015) pointed out the informal and hands-on learning that men do in men’s sheds. Men’s Sheds attendees want to socialize and feel valued. He mentions that some sheds “involve and informally mentor. . . men with disabilities” (p. 171). Hence, some authors acknowledged physical challenges that older adults may face.
Positionalities and Learner Marginalization
Older learners’ experiences may be affected by various positionalities, including age, race, gender, and sexual orientation. Reio and Sanders (1999) described the pervasiveness of ageism among executives, managers, and trainers. They stated, “Seventy percent reported training is problematic for employees between the ages of 40 and 60” (p. 10). Older, uneducated individuals are most at risk for facing ageism, and this risk is compounded by other positionalities, such as race, gender, and immigration status (Reio & Sanders-Reio, 1999). The authors counter that research shows that workers over 45 perform well and are more reliable than younger workers (Reio & Sanders, 1999). Younger learners perform better when older workers train them because the younger learners gain broader perspectives from the more senior workers (Reio & Sanders-Reio, 1999). The authors urge employers to become more aware of ageism in the workplace. Further research is needed on how older and younger workers learn, raise expectations for older adults, and challenge older learners to achieve.
Ageism is not the only challenge. Two scholars focused on the needs of women. Wolf (1993) mentioned women’s mentoring programs, as traditional mentoring models mainly focus on men. She emphasized that mentoring was crucial as a part of adult learning in the workplace for middle-aged and older women who decided to learn to advance job skills and leadership. Bennet (1992) noted the need for adult learning programs where older adults can discuss changing roles of women and men as the classes for younger people.
Discussion and Conclusions
The topic of older adults in Adult Learning has been of occasional interest. The journal has focused on programs for older adults, program needs for older adults, personal reflections on learning, classroom methods, personal reflections on learning, and other studies. With few exceptions, authors have not utilized critical frameworks (e.g., Annamma, 2016), critical race theory (CRT), intersectionality theory (Collins & Bilge, 2020), or critical gerontology (Holstein & Minkler, 2007) in their writings.
The journal has moved from featuring program reports to more empirical research-based articles concerning older adults. Empirical articles in the 2010s focused on achieving a bachelor’s degree after age 65 (Helterbran, 2017), learning about motorcycling (Zacharakis, 2019), two studies concerning OLLIs (Lee et al., 2018; Truluck et al., 2010), and looking at older and younger adults in post-secondary education (Cummins et al., 2019). Regarding demographics, when the race was mentioned, most of the participants were White. Most authors were White and mainly were affiliated with higher education institutions in the Midwest and Northeast, with a few authors from the South and one from the West.
The findings from this study confirm that adults are generally portrayed as active and engaged, and the concept of “older adult” is usually not well-defined (Chen et al., 2008). Some articles mention older adults’ physical challenges as barriers to participation (Golding, 2015; Kinney, 1989) as Lim et al. (2016) addressed the same issue in their workplaces. Likewise, predominantly White, educated, women participants in OLLIs and LIRs may affect involvement from other groups in those nonformal learning settings (Lee et al., 2018) so these nonformal learning settings need to focus on attracting a more diverse population. In addition, the findings regarding the learning programs for older adults confirm that older adults have a strong desire to engage in nonformal and informal learning on the internet or use of social media (Coelho & Duarte, 2016; Jin et al., 2019).
Based on our findings in this literature review, we encourage those interested in investigating the experiences of older adults to (1) more clearly define the term “older adults” and provide a rationale for the age chosen; (2) investigate the experiences of people of color, those who are economically challenged, individuals living with physical and psychological challenges, such as chronic mental and physical disabilities, and issues concerning the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ) community; (3) evaluate programs that include or are exclusively for people of color, women, or individuals who identify as LGBTQ; (4) discuss the retirement experiences of populations beyond White men; (5) continue to publish more empirical articles concerning older adults; and (6) publish more articles on older adult issues from authors of color.
Implications for Practice
In addition to areas for future research, there are implications for practice. Adult educators need to attract a more diverse population to nonformal settings such as OLLIs and LIRs. Project-based offerings such as knitting circles or learning car maintenance may attract a broader audience to these institutions. Some OLLIs require membership fees which could be structured according to income.
The need for older adult programming has increased as that population has continued to grow. In this regard, Purdie and Boulton-Lewis (2003) specified the learning needs of older adults to be technical skills and knowledge, health issues, leisure and entertainment, and life issues. In addition, more empirical articles that explore particular techniques for teaching older adults may be helpful to educators. First, regarding programming, older adults are increasingly faced with new technologies they need to be familiar with to communicate with others. Therefore, those who teach older adults must be sensitive to older adults’ technology access issues. Second, although older adults are viewed as “active,” sensitivity to physical and psychological issues is essential when teaching the older adult.
Scholar/practitioners may be interested in empirical articles on teaching techniques for older adults, such as Wolf’s (1993) empirical article on reminiscence. Perhaps more articles concerning the use of technology in formal and nonformal settings or the use of storytelling, journaling, and techniques used in intergenerational adult education events would be in order. In addition, to be more inclusive older adult educators may benefit from articles on culturally relevant education practices for older adults.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author Biographies
Lisa M. Baumgartner, Ed.D, is a Professor in the Adult, Professional, and Community Education program at Texas State University. Her research interests include learning and development in marginalized populations. She co-authored Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (third and fourth ed) published by Jossey-Bass.
Bora Jin, PhD, is a lecturer at the Gerontology Institute at Georgia State University. Her research interests include older adult learning and development, particularly in the areas of physical activity, health in later life, and mobile learning.
Junghwan Kim, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Educational Human Resource Development (HRD) and the Leader of Adult Education in the Department of Educational Administration and HRD at Texas A&M University. His research focuses on learning, leadership, engagement, and development of/in/across adults/workers, organizations, and communities, as well as international HRD and lifelong learning.