In this article, the authors test the hypothesis that cycles of speaking and turn taking during group design discussions are entrained to rhythmic shifts in group-level modes of reasoning. Video recordings of six teams of engineering students performing realistic design tasks were coded for instances of figural and conceptual reasoning, rates of turn taking, and group participation. Exploratory spectral analysis pointed to rhythmic oscillations every 5 to 10 minutes between periods of predominantly figural or conceptual discussion, whereas structural equations modeling indicated a lead-lag relationship between peaks in figural reasoning and lowered levels of conceptual reasoning, group participation, and turn taking. The authors interpret these results as evidence for cognitive entrainment in group discussion and illustrate the potential of frequency and pooled time series techniques for studying the temporal structure of group interaction.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ancona, D. , & Chong, C. L. (1996). Entrainment: Pace, cycle and rhythm in organizational behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 251-284.
2.
Bakeman, R. , & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3.
Bentler, P. M. & Wu, E.J.C. (1995). EQS for Windows (Version 4.04) [Computer software]. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software Inc.
4.
Brereton, M. F. , Cannon, D. M., Mabogunje, A., & Leifer, L. J. (1996). Collaboration in design teams: How social interaction shapes the product. In N. Cross, H. Christiaans, & K. Dorst (Eds.), Analyzing design activity (pp. 319-341). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
5.
Chapple, E. D. (1970). Culture and biological man. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
6.
Cross, N. , Christiaans, H., & Dorst, K. (1996). Introduction: The Delft protocols workshop. In N. Cross, H. Christiaans, & K. Dorst (Eds.), Analyzing design activity (pp. 1-15). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
7.
CVideo Macintosh Video Annotation Software [Computer software]. (1992). San Francisco: Envisionology.
8.
Dabbs, J. M. , & Ruback, R. B. (1987). Dimensions of group process: Amount and structure of vocal interaction. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 123-169.
9.
Goldschmidt, G. (1991). The dialectics of sketching. Creativity Research Journal, 4, 123-143.
10.
Goldschmidt, G. (1992). On figural conceptualization in architectural design. In R. Trappl (Ed.), Cybernetics and systems research ’92 (Vol. 1, pp. 599-605). Singapore: World Scientific.
11.
Goldschmidt, G. (1994). On visual design thinking: The vis kids of architecture. Design Studies, 15, 158-174.
12.
Goldschmidt, G. (1995). The designer as a team of one. Design Studies, 16, 189-209.
13.
Goodwin, C. (1981). Conversational organization: Interaction between a speaker and a hearer. London: Academic Press.
14.
Gottman, J. M. (1981). Time-series analysis: A comprehensive introduction for social scientists. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
15.
Kelly, J. R. (1988). Entrainment in individual and group behavior. In J. E. McGrath (Ed.), The social psychology of time: New Perspectives (pp. 89-110). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
16.
Kelly, J. R. , Futoran, G. C., & McGrath, J. E. (1990). Capacity and capability: Seven studies of entrainment of task performance rates. Small Group Research, 21, 283-314.
17.
Kelly, J. R. , & Karau, S. J. (1993). Entrainment of creativity in small groups. Small Group Research, 24, 179-198.
18.
Kelly, J. R. , & McGrath, J. E. (1985). Effects of time limits and task types on task performance and interaction in four-person groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 395-407.
19.
McGrath, J. E. , & Kelly, J. R. (1986). Time and human interaction: Toward a social psychology of time. New York: Guilford.
20.
McGrath, J. E. , Kelly, J. R., & Machatka, D. E. (1984). The social psychology of time: Entrainment of behavior in social and organizational settings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Applied social psychology annual, volume 5: Applications in organizational settings (pp. 21-44). Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage.
21.
McGrath, J. E. , & Rotchford, N. L. (1983). Time and behavior in organizations. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Straw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 5, pp. 57-101). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
22.
Moore, K. J. , Osgood, D. W., Larzelere, R. E., & Chamberlain, P. (1994). Use of pooled time series in the study of naturally occurring clinical events and problem behavior in a foster care setting. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 718-728.
23.
Parker, K.C.H. (1988). Speaking turns in small group interaction: A context-sensitive event sequence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 965-971.
24.
Reid, F.J.M. , Reed, S., & Edworthy, J. (1999). Design visualization and collaborative interaction in undergraduate engineering teams. International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 3, 235-259.
25.
Ruback, R. B. , Dabbs, J. M., & Hopper, C. H. (1984). The process of brainstorming: An analysis with individual and group vocal parameters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 558-567.
26.
Sanderson, P. M. (1994). MacSHAPA (Version 1.0.2) [Computer software]. Urbana: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
27.
Sayrs, L. W. (1989). Pooled time series analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
28.
Smith, R. P. , & Leong, A. (1998). An observational study of design team process: A comparison of student and professional engineers. Journal of Mechanical Design, 120, 636-642.
29.
Stasser, G. , & Taylor, L. A. (1991). Speaking turns in face-to-face discussions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 675-684.
30.
Stasser, G. , & Vaughan, S. I. (1996). Models of participation during face-to-face unstructured discussion. In E. H. Witte & J. H. Davis (Eds.), Understanding group behavior: Consensual action by small groups (Vol. 1, pp. 165-192). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
31.
Warner, R. M. (1979). Periodic rhythms in conversational speech. Language and Speech, 22, 382-389.
32.
Warner, R. M. (1988). Rhythm in social interaction. In J. E. McGrath (Ed.), The social psychology of time: New perspectives (pp. 63-88). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
33.
Warner, R. M. (1991). Incorporating time. In B. M. Montgomery & S. Duck (Eds.), Studying interpersonal interaction (pp. 82-102). New York: Guilford.
34.
Warner, R. M. (1992a). Cyclicity of vocal activity increases during conversation: Support for a nonlinear systems model of dyadic social interaction. Behavioral Science, 37, 128-138.
35.
Warner, R. M. (1992b). Sequential analysis of social interaction: Assessing internal versus social determinants of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 51-60.
36.
Warner, R. M. , & Mooney, K. (1988). Individual differences in vocal activity rhythm: Fourier analysis of cyclicity in amount of talk. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 17, 99-111.
37.
Warner, R. M. , Waggener, T. B., & Kronauer, R. E. (1983). Synchronized cycles in ventilation and vocal activity during spontaneous conversational speech. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology, 54, 1324-1334.
38.
Winer, B. J. (1971). Statistical principles in experimental design. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill
