In pursuit of peace: Attitudinal and behavioral change with simulations and Multiple Identification Theory

Abstract

The authors have developed a theory of simulation game design (Multiple Identification Theory; MIT) based on earlier research and several of their own studies. They utilize this theory to create a simulation game designed to change attitudes from a stance of competition to one of cooperation. Three questionnaires are constructed that measure participants' attitudes toward “cooperation versus competition,” “truth and trust versus deception and mistrust,” and “social view of conflict versus individual view of conflict.” Participants play a simulation designed by the authors in accordance with MIT. All students complete pretests of the attitude questionnaires, play the simulation twice, and then complete posttests of the same questionnaires. In addition to these data, behavioral measures of the players' cooperative or aggressive conduct during the simulations are recorded. Quantitative and qualitative analysis found significant change (in a cooperative direction) for all measures. Robust e fect sizes are also reported. It is believed this study provides encouraging initial support for the e ficacy of simulations designed via MIT in changing attitudes and behavior. It is suggested that such research is of special importance for the promotion of cooperation and peace as alternatives to competition and aggression.

Keywords

attitude change conflict resolution cooperation international relations Multiple Identification Theory (MIT)negotiation political science psychology peace studies simulation games

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Advanced negotiation training for natural resource professionals. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2006, from Fort Collins Science Center Online Web site: http://www.fort.usgs.gov/products/training/P201.asp

Boyer, P. , Clark, C.E. , Kett, J. , Salisbury, N. , Sithoff, H. , & Woloch, N. (1993). The enduring vision: A history of the American people. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath .

Bredemeier, M.A. , Bernstein, G. , & Oxman, W. (1982). BA FA BA FA and dogmatism/ethnocentrism: A study of attitude change through simulation gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 13(4), 413-436.

Cherryholmes, C. (1966). Some current research on effectiveness of educational simulations: Implications for alternative strategies. American Behavioral Scientist, 10, 3-4.

Deutsch, M. (2000). Cooperation and competition. In M. Deutsch & P. T. Coleman (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (pp. 21-40). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dowd, G.E. (1992). A spirited resistance: The North American Indian struggle for unity, 1745-1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Eagly, A.H. , & Chaiken, S. (1998). Attitude structure and function. In D. T. Gilbert , S. T. Fiske , & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1; 4th ed.; pp. 269-322). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fisher, R. , & Ury, W. (1983). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. New York: Penguin.

Garvey, D.M. , & Seiler, W.H. (1968). A study of the effectiveness of different methods of teaching international relations to high school students. In S. S. Boocock & E. O. Schild (Eds.), Simulation games in learning (pp. 269-273). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

10.

Guetzkow, H. , Chadwick, F.A. , Brody, R.A. , Synder, R.C. , & Noel, R. (1963). Simulations in international relations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

11.

International conflict management and resolution. (2006). Retrieved May 9, 2006, from The Carter Center's Conflict Resolution Program Web site: http://cartercenter.org/peaceprograms/program12.htm

12.

Johnson, D. , & Johnson, R. (n.d.). Teaching students to be peacemakers. Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://www.co-operation.org/pages/peacemaker.html

13.

Lax, D. , & Sebenius, J.K. (1986). The manager as negotiator: Bargaining for cooperation and competitive gain. New York : Free Press.

14.

Nash, G.B. , Howe, J.R. , & Davis, A.F. (1994). The American people: Creating a nation and a society (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.

15.

NEGOTIATION: The basics. (n.d.). Retrieved May 9, 2006, from Susan Wehrspann & Associates Web site: http://www.sueswebsite.com/training_negotiate_basics.html

16.

The Nobel Peace Prize. (2005, June 9). Retrieved May 12, 2006, from The Nobel Foundation Web site: http://nobelprize.org/peace/

17.

Olivas, L. , & Newstrom, J.W. (1981). Learning through the use of simulation games. Training and Development Journal, 35(9), 63-66.

18.

Schumacher, T.R. (1997). Simulation and Attitude Change: Evolving the Research Model. In Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (Vol. 2; pp. 648-654). Wailea, HI: Computer Society Press.

19.

Sousa, D.A. (1995). How the brain learns. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals .

20.

Spangler, B. (2003). Integrative or interest-based bargaining. Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://www.beyondintractability.org/m/interest-based_bargaining.jsp

21.

Strategic restructuring: Partnership options for nonprofits. (1998, November). Retrieved May 12, 2006, from La Piana Associates, Inc. Web site: http://www.lapiana.org/resources/tips/negotiations/11_1998.html

22.

Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 223(5), 96-102.

23.

Tajfel, H. , & Turner, J.C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

24.

Wertheim, E. (n.d.). Negotiations and resolving conflicts: An overview. Retrieved May 9, 2006, from College of Business Administration, Northeastern University Web site: http://web.cba.neu.edu/~ewertheim/interper/negot3.htm

25.

Williams, R.H. (1980). Attitude change and simulation games: the ability of a simulation game to change attitudes when structured in accordance with either the cognitive dissonance or incentive models of attitude change. Simulation & Games: An International Journal, 11(2), 177-196.

26.

Williams, R.H. , McCandless, P.H. , Hobb, D.A. , & Williams, S.A. (1986). Changing attitudes with “identification theory.” Simulation & Games: An International Journal , 17(1), 25-43.

27.

Williams, R.H. , & Williams, S.A. (1987). Level of identification as a predictor of attitude change. Simulation & Games: An International Journal, 18(4), 471-487.

28.

World Citizens for Peace. (2006, January). Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://www.wcpeace.org/