The founding of modern simulation/gaming

Abstract

This editorial first touches on the early days of simulation/gaming. It then traces the links between International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA) and Simulation & Gaming (S&G) up until the 2009 ISAGA conference in Singapore. The links are, of course, provided through people, who were active in both the organization and the journal. The joint contributions were of several kinds, including conference organization, conference presentations, journal articles, and journal symposia. A list of previous ISAGA conferences is provided. This article thus contributes some elements toward a more complete portrait of the development of the discipline.

Keywords

articles conferences contributions development of the discipline early gamers early scholars founders ISAGA links modern simulation/gaming proceedings publication simulation/gaming S&G Simulation & Gaming thanks

It is convenient to consider that the appearance of modern simulation/gaming for learning was discernable early last century (see, for example, Feldt, 1966; Institute of Play, 2011; Shubik, 2009; Smith, 2010). Some pioneering work was done in Russia in the 1930s (for an account, see Dzhukov, Mikhaylushkin, Gagnon, Wolfe, & Crookall, 1993; Gagnon, 1987) and in Japan in the 1940s (see Ichikawa, 2008). The main development of modern simulation/gaming probably got under way in the 1950s, especially with the publication of Home Ludens (Huizinga, 1944). It is probably no coincidence that Huizinga was Dutch and that ISAGA was “born” in the Netherlands, which is now the legal headquarters of ISAGA. Moreover, several ISAGA conferences have been held there, and the Netherlands is now awash with simulation/gaming activity. Probably the earliest work published by an ISAGA member was Duke (1964), well before ISAGA and this journal came into being.

Modern simulation/gaming reaches back to the 1950s and 1960s, and took off in the late 1960s and blossomed in the 1970s, with the work and enthusiasm and creativity of scholars, such as

Al Feldt

Barbara Steinwachs

Barry Hughes

Bernie Keys

Bill Biggs

Bill Gamson

Bob Armstrong

Bob Horn

Bob Noel

Brent Ruben

Cathy Greenblat

Charles Petranek

Clarice Stoll

Clark Abt

Cleo Cherryholmes

Dan Druckman

David Walker

David Zuckerman

Dennis Meadows

Derek Unwin

Dick Brody

Dick Chadwick

Dick Duke

Dick Meier

Don Thatcher

Elliott Carlson

Erling Schild

Fred Goodman

Garry Shirts

Gary Brewer

Gerald Shure

Hans Becker

Hans Thorelli

Harold Guetzkow

Henry Ellington

Hiroharu Seki

James Coleman

James McKenney

Jetta Magarry

Joe Wolfe

John Raser

John Taylor

Jon Wilkenfeld

June Robinson

Kalman Cohen

Ken Goosen

Ken Jones

Layman Allen

Leonard Suransky

Linda Lederman

Martin Shubik

Mary Birshtein

Mary Bredemeier

Michael Inbar

Morry van Ments

Myron Uretsky

Pat Tansey

Paul Greenlaw

Paul Meerts

Paul Smoker

Paul Twelker

Pierre Corbeil

Ray Glazier

Rex Walford

Richard Meier

Richard Powers

Robert Armstrong

Ron Stadsklev

Samuel Livingston

Sandy Fowler

Sarane Boocock

Tony Faria

Thiagi

William Dill

William Pfeiffer

This list of early names is fairly representative of the early days, but it is certainly incomplete. Thus, I offer my apologies for missing names. Also my apologies to more recent people, who have also contributed greatly to the discipline.

I have had the pleasure to have met some of the above colleagues. Some have published in S&G or served as S&G Ed Board members. Several have been S&G editors or section editors, such as Biggs, Coleman, Faria, Inbar, Greenblat, and Wolfe. We owe them a debt for laying the foundations of what has become a worldwide endeavor and an essential and still growing part of much education, training and research, as well as of a myriad endeavors that aim to better life on this planet—or even escape from it.

To be complete, I should really add people who joined the simulation/gaming community more recently, from the 1980s onwards, and more recently still, people in the serious games arena, but numbers here get large. Also, to make it truly complete, I should add those who have worked and who work in industry (e.g., chemical, nuclear power, oil), health care, sciences (e.g., physics, climate, geomorphology), aviation and shipping (either to build and test machines, or to train people to use them), and the armed forces (e.g., the National Defense University, Washington, DC, USA), service industries (e.g., hotel management), and government. However, numbers here become massive. For example, it is now well nigh impossible to run a management or marketing program without some courses using simulation/gaming methods. A more recent example: In the last decade, the use of simulation/gaming in medicine and health care training has become unavoidable, thanks partly to Dave Gaba and colleagues, and to the association and journal that he founded. Indeed, one can hardly imagine an area that does not now increasingly rely on some form of gaming or simulation to progress.

ISAGA and S&G

In 1970, two important simulation/gaming events happened, independently of each other, that were to transform the “face of the field.” The first issue of S&G was published in March, followed closely, in June, by an invitation from Dick Duke that generated the first meeting of gamers that gave rise to ISAGA.

To celebrate 40 years of S&G, in 2009 and 2010, I edited a symposium of 33 review articles, spread over seven issues. In 2009, ISAGA also celebrated four decades at its 40^th annual international conference in Singapore. Of course, many other associations for simulation and gaming exist, and some of them are affiliated with ISAGA and with S&G. However, not many associations that have at their heart simulation/gaming and learning (taken in its broadest sense) can boast such a long life. Nor can many journals. Only two other associations, as far as I am aware, came into existence at about the same time as ISAGA—they are Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning (ABSEL) and North American Simulation and Gaming Association (NASAGA), both still vibrant today. NASAGA started life as the National Gaming Council and was founded several years before ISAGA. Shortly after, ABSEL was founded, and has been the strongest and steadiest contributor to S&G. As this symposium is an ISAGA proceedings, the rest of this article will focus on the links between this organization and this journal. At some later date, no doubt an opportunity will arise to go into detail about the historic links between S&G and one or both of ABSEL and NASAGA.

Over the last four decades, ISAGA and S&G have shared much. It is worth tracing some of those interweaving threads. Both came into existence at the same time, both are multidisciplinary and international, and both have gained from each other’s existence. ISAGA and S&G have benefited from contributions made by people who have been active in both ISAGA and S&G. These people include presenters at or organizers of ISAGA conferences who have also been authors in or Ed Board members for S&G. ISAGA and S&G have jointly benefited from some extraordinary individuals. They cannot all be named here, but up until the anniversaries of ISAGA 2009 in Singapore and Volume 40 of S&G, they would include

Alan Coote

Amparo Garca Carbonell

Arnaldo Cecchini

Beverly Rising

Bob Armstrong

Cai Yiyu

Cathy Greenblat

Cisca Joldersma

Dan Druckman

Danny Saunders

Dennis Meadows

Dick Duke

Dick Teach

Elyssebeth Leigh

Fran Watts

Gert Jan Hofstede

Hans Gernert

Henk Becker

Hubert Law-Yone

Igor Mayer

Ivo Wenzler

Jac Geurts

Jan Klabbers

Joe Wolfe

Kiyoshi Arai

Klaas Bruin

Markus Ulrich

Marleen van de Westelaken

Mieko Nakamura

Paola Rizzi

Pieter Bots

Pieter van der Hijden

Precha Thavikulwat

Shigehisa Tsuchiya

Thomas Eberle

Toshiko Kikkawa

Vincent Peters

Willy Kriz

Yeo Gee Kin

Apologies to those I should have mentioned, but did not. Apologies also to people who have contributed to just one entity, but not to the other (e.g., Fred Percival, at least twice ISAGA conference Chair, but who never published in S&G), or ABSEL folk (e.g., Bernie Keys, Hugh Cannon, Steve Gold, Tom Pray, Walt Wheatley, who contributed much to S&G, but who never attended an ISAGA conference¹).

Indeed, ISAGAns provided much central support for S&G, and S&G has been an outlet for much ISAGA scholarship. This has continued since the 2009 ISAGA conference. However, this is the first time (I believe) that S&G has been host to an ISAGA conference proceedings. It is fitting that this happened for the 40^th anniversary of both entities. Just a few examples will show how people have contributed to both. The initial founder of ISAGA, Dick Duke, is also closely associated with the early days of S&G. His first S&G article (Duke, 1974) appeared in the early days of modern gaming, and he has continued to contribute to both ISAGA and S&G since. Longtime General Secretary of ISAGA, Jan Klabbers, has guest edited several symposia of S&G and contributed several articles; his work both in S&G and in ISAGA has been influential (see articles in S&G, and Klabbers, 2009). Current (2009) General Secretary, Vincent Peters, published several articles in S&G, including one of the most cited (1998).

Dan Druckman (1971) was one of the first ISAGA conference goers to publish in S&G, and over the years, he has contributed several important articles. Recently Dan guest edited a symposium celebrating Harold Guetzkow, who at the last minute was unable to attend the 1991 ISAGA conference, but who sent a message of encouragement, reproduced in an ISAGA proceedings. I was pleased that Dan was able to give a keynote at the 40^th anniversary conference (drawn from his S&G article, Druckman & Ebner, 2008).

Cathy Greenblat, one of ISAGA’s strongest supporters, was for several years Editor of S&G. Her earliest article for S&G was a well-cited guide to the literature at the time (1972), and over the next 30 years, she authored 13 influential articles for S&G, in addition to her nongame articles, books on games, and some major games. Dick Duke and Cathy Greenblat both also published, together and separately, some influential simulation/gaming books with the same publisher as S&G.

It was a pity that neither Dick Duke (original founder), nor Jan Klabbers (longtime General Secretary), nor Vincent Peters (then General Secretary, and current Chair) were able to attend the 2009 meeting. No doubt other ties could be mentioned, such as the affiliation of several gaming organizations to both ISAGA and S&G. However, the above motley of connections is largely sufficient to illustrate the strong ties that have developed between ISAGA and S&G over 40 years.

As the 40th ISAGA conference is also being celebrated in the pages of S&G, it is important for readers to be able to know the previous conferences. A reasonably accurate list, drawn from the ISAGA website, is in Table 1. My thanks go to Jan Klabbers for updates and corrections.

Table 1.

ISAGA Conferences, up Until the 40^th

Year	Place	Conference N°; Theme; Organizer; URL	Proceedings
2009	Singapore	40^th; Learn to Game, Game to Learn; Geo Kin Yeo and Yiyu Cai; www.isaga2009.org	This symposium issue of S&G, Guest Edited by Jonnie Hill and Ma. Mercedes Rodrigo. CD-ROM: Learn to Game, Game to Learn; the 40^th Conference ISAGA 2009; Society of Simulation and Gaming of Singapore, 2009; ISBN 978-981-08-3769-3.
2008	Kaunas, Lithuania	39^th; Games: Virtual Worlds and Reality; Eugenijus Bagdonas and Irena Patasiene, www.isaga2008.lt	ISAGA 2008: Games: Virtual Worlds and Reality: Selected Papers of ISAGA 2008; Eugenijus Bagdonas & Irena Patasiene (Eds.); Technologia, Kaunas, Lithuania, 2009; ISBN 978-9955-25-682-3. CD-ROM: Games: Virtual Worlds and Reality; The 39^th Conference ISAGA 2008, Proceedings; ISBN 978-9955-25-532-1.
2007	Nijmegen, The Netherlands	38^th; Organizing and Learning Through Gaming and Simulation, guiding principle Learning by doing; Vincent Peters and Marleen van de Westelaken; www.isaga2007.nl	Organizing and Learning Through Gaming and Simulation; Proceedings of ISAGA 2007; Igor Mayer & Hanneke Mastik (Eds.); Eburon, Delft, 2008; ISBN 978-90-5972-2316. CD-ROM: Organizing and Learning Through Gaming and Simulation; Proceedings of the 38^th Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association; ISBN 978-90-811881-1-1.
2006	Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation	37^th; Global Interdependence of the Uniform Education Space; Yuli Porkhovnik; website no longer available at www.isaga2006.com, for partial copy see www.webarchive.org	ISAGA; Abstracts and papers of the 37^th Annual Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA); St. Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics (Engecon), St. Petersburg, Russia.
2005	Atlanta, GA, USA	36^th; Serious Play; Richard Teach; website www.isaga05.gatech.edu	Sriram Narasimhan & Richard Teach; 2006; The Proceedings of the 36^th International Simulation and Gaming Association; June 28-July 2, 2005. ISAGA05, Atlanta, GA, USA.
2004	Munich, Germany	35^th; Willy Kriz; website www.sagsaga.org/isaga2004	Willy Kriz & Thomas Eberle (Eds.); Bridging the Gap: Transforming Knowledge Into Action Through Gaming and Simulation; Proceedings of the 35^th Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA). Munich, Germany.
2003	Kisarazu, Japan	34^th; Rei Shiratori; website no longer available at www.isaga2003.org, for partial copy see www.webarchive.org	Kiyoshi Arai (Ed.); 2003; Social Contributions and Responsibilities of Simulation & Gaming; Kazusa Akademia Park, Chiba, Japan.
2002	Edinburgh, Scotland	33^rd; Fred Percival; website www.eds.napier.ac.uk/isaga_sagset	Fred Percival, Helen Godfrey, Phyllis Laybourn, & Sarah Murray (Eds.); 2003; Interactive Learning Through Gaming and Simulation; The International Simulation and Gaming Yearbook; Volume 11.
2001	Bari, Italy	32^nd, Paola Rizzi and Antonio Brusa; www.sdvb9.net/isaga2001	Elena Musci (Ed.); 2001; On the Edge of the Millennium: A New Foundation for Gaming Simulation; Edizioni B. A. Graphis, Bari, Italy.
2000	Tartu, Estonia	31^st; Anne Villems.	Leen Rahnu (Ed.); 2001; Bridging the Information and Knowledge Societies; Tartu, Estonia.
1999	Sydney, Australia	30^th; Elyssebeth Leigh; www.education.uts.edu.au/ozsaga/conference.htm	E. Leigh & R. McLaughlan; 1999; Anticipating the Unexpected; UTS, Sydney.
1998	Saint Petersburg, Russia	29^th; Youli Porkhovik and Fedotov	Porkhovnik, Y. M., & Novik, M. M.; Simulation and gaming in professional education and management; St. Petersburg: Engecon.
1997	Tilburg, The Netherlands	28^th; Jac Geurts and Cisca Joldersma	Geurts, J., Joldersma, C., & Roelofs, E. (1998); Gaming/Simulation for Policy Development and Organizational Change; Tilburg: Tilburg University Press.
1996	Riga, Latvia	27^th; Valdis Bisters	Bisters, V. (1997); Simulation and gaming for sustainable development; Riga, Latvia: Environmental Publishers “Vide.”
1995	Valencia, Spain	26^th; Francis Watts and Amparo Garca Carbonell	Garcia-Carbonell, G., & Watts, F. (1996); Simulation now! Learning Through experience: The challenge of change; Valencia, Spain: Diputaci de Valencia.
1994	Ann Arbor, MI, USA	25^th; Richard Duke	Crookall, D., & Arai, K. (1995); Simulation and gaming across disciplines and cultures: ISAGA at a watershed; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
1993	Bucharest, Romania	24^th; Eduard Rãdãceanu	Rãdãceanu, E. (1994); Reform and progress helped by simulation and gaming; Bucharest, Romania: IROMA.
1992	Edinburgh, Scotland	23rd; Fred Percival	Percival, F., Lodge, S., & Saunders, D. (1993); The simulation and gaming yearbook 1993: Developing transferable skills in education and training; London, England: Kogan Page.
1991	Kyoto, Japan	22^nd; Hiroharo Seki	Crookall, D., & Arai, K. (1992); Global Interdependence: Simulation and Gaming Perspectives; Tokyo, Japan: Springer-Verlag.
1990	Durham, NH, USA	21^st; Dennis Meadows	No Proceedings.
1989	Weimar, German Democratic Republic	20^th; Hans Gernert	Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Hochschule für Architektur und Bauwesen, Weimar, 36 Jahrgang [1990], Reihe B: Heft 4.
1988	Utrecht, The Netherlands	19^th; Jan Klabbers	Klabbers, J. H. G., Scheper, W. J., Takkenberg, C. A., & Crookall, D. (1989); Simulation-Gaming: On the Improvement of Competence in Dealing With Complexity, Uncertainty and Value Conflicts. Oxford: Pergamon. [Now an imprint of Elsevier.]
1987	Venice, Italy	18^th; Arnaldo Ceccini and Giorgio Panizzi	Crookall, D., Klabbers, J. H. G., Coote, A., Saunders, D., Cecchini, A., & Delle Piane, A. (1988); Simulation-Gaming in Education and Training; Oxford: Pergamon. [Now an imprint of Elsevier.]
1986	Toulon, France	17^th; Communication and Simulation; David Crookall	Crookall, D., Greenblat, C. S., Coote, A., Klabbers, J. H. G., & Watson, D. R. (1987); Simulation-Gaming in the Late 1980s; Oxford: Pergamon. [Now an imprint of Elsevier.]³
1985	Alma Ata, USSR	16^th; Vladimir Burkov	No proceedings.
1984	Elsinore, Denmark	15^th; Eric Petterson	No proceedings.
1983	Sophia, Bulgaria	14^th; Ognyan Panov and Isak Assa	No proceedings.
1982	Sterling, Sctoland	13^th; Drew Mackie	No proceedings.
1981	Haifa, Israel	12^th Hubert Law-Yone	No proceedings.
1980	Geneva, Switzerland	11^th; Maurice Graber	Goldberg, D., & M. Graber, M. (1980); Simulation/Games in Education Research and Decision-Making. Geneva, Switzerland.
1979	Leeuwarden, Netherlands	10^th; Klaas Bruin	Bruin, K., de Haan, J., Teijken, C., & Veeman, W. (1979); How to Build a Simulation/Game. Groningen: Centrale Reproductiendienst der Rijksunversiteit.
1978	Lund, Sweden	9^th; Mats Lörstad	No proceedings.
1977	Birmingham, UK	8^th; Margaret Hobson and Robert Armstrong	No proceedings.
1976	Carcas, Venezuela	7^th; Estelio Breto-Flores	Breto-Flores, Emilio. (1976); De Modelos de Simulacion de Decisions. Caracas, Venezuela.
1975	Milan, Italy	6^th; Gianluigi Sartorio	No proceedings.
1974	Berlin, Germany	5^th; Declan Kennedy	No proceedings.
1973	Gaithersburg MD, USA	4^th; Cathy Greenblat and Peter House	No proceedings.
1972	Birmingham, England	3^rd; John Taylor	No proceedings.
1971	Utrecht, The Netherlands	2^nd; Henk Becker	Becker, H. A., & Goudappel, H. M. (1972); Developments in Simulation and Gaming.; The Netherlands: Boom Meppel.
1970	Bad, Godesburg, Germany	1^st; Richard Duke, Allan Feldt, and Hans Hansen	No proceedings.

Note: Not all conferences had a theme. Not all web links here will work, but they are povided in case they become active again.

One further interconnection between ISAGA and S&G is ISAGA’s constitution (ISAGA, 2011). One reason for quoting it here is that this will allow a wider audience to read it. Another reason is that it could easily be regarded, mutatis mutandis, as the mission for S&G. One might say that this is unsurprising given that some of the constitutional writers have been involved with S&G. (I have made small stylistic amendments to the text.)

Article 2

The aim of the Association is: to unite professionals from across the world and from diverse disciplines who engage in the research, design and application of gaming and simulation and related methods, and to further do everything that is directly or indirectly related or that may be conducive to these areas, in the broadest sense of the word. As a catalyst, the Association attempts to stimulate the design, application and research of gaming and simulation methods in a variety of domains across the world. The mentioned methods include a broad collection of research, consultancy, teaching and learning methods and techniques, such as game simulation, management games, policy exercises, computer simulations, computer assisted simulations, role-plays, scenarios, dynamic case studies, activities in the field of experiential learning, etcetera. All these methods simulate processes, such as economic, technical or social processes, and by applying gaming techniques contribute to the growth of knowledge about the simulated domain.

The Association strives to realise its objectives by:

closely following and distributing new developments in the field of gaming and simulation;

stimulating researchers and students to conduct systematic research into gaming and simulation;

stimulating practitioners to use gaming and simulation to their full potential;

stimulating scientists and practitioners to present and publish their findings and to share their experiences;

enhancing the proper use of gaming and simulation, including its ethical aspects;

supporting scientists and practitioners to expand their knowledge and skills in the field of gaming and simulation;

enhancing cross-disciplinary and cross-cultural collaboration between scientists and practitioners, . . . .

No doubt other overlaps between the two exist, but the ones mentioned here serve to illustrate the strong ties between ISAGA and S&G. A happy interdependence exists, and I hope will exist for another 40 years. Certainly, in ISAGA conferences, we have seen the wisdom of Plato’s words: “You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation.”

When these two influential and mutually supportive entities come together, such as in the ISAGA 2009 conference, with proceedings in this issue of S&G, it gives a clear message that those who ignore simulation/gaming do so at their peril—and miss out on a powerful technology and methodology. The message from these proceedings is that simulation/gaming is vibrant, it is powerful, and it is increasing in importance.

We should thus all be extremely grateful to Jonnie Hill and Ma. Mercedes (Didith) Rodrigo for undertaking the mammoth task of editing these proceedings. They have done a wonderful job, subjecting each article to a thorough review, coaching authors through several revisions, and not flinching, even when they had to reject articles by influential people. Many people contributed to the conference and to the proceedings, and they are recognized in the conference website and in Jonnie and Didith’s Guest Editorial. Dick Duke’s idea for a tree to be planted at all subsequent venues seems to have taken root (unintended pun) in subsequent conferences. These ISAGA trees symbolize both increasing simulation/gaming knowledge and the branching out of simulation/gaming into ever more areas. Two lovely people above all need to be recognized in these proceedings: the two Conference Organizers, Yeo Gee Kin and Cai Yiyu, who also made the first ISAGA tree possible.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

My thanks go to the following for their helpful comments on this editorial: Dan Druckman, Didith Rodrigo, Dick Duke, Jan Klabbers, Joe Wolfe, Jonnie Hill, Precha Thavikulwat, and Vincent Peters.

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The author received no financial support for the research and authorship of this article.

Notes

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