Integrating an Immigration Law Simulation Into EAP Courses

Abstract

Background. Previous research has highlighted the pedagogical effectiveness of a simulation-based approach to EAP (English for Academic Purposes) instruction.

Aim. The purpose of the article is describe the use of the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation in some EAP courses and examine its benefits and drawbacks.

Method. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with the instructors and written questionnaires with the students.

Results. The findings suggested that although the simulation raised some challenges in terms of design and accessibility of the topic, it brought three benefits to the EAP courses: developing students’ academic language skills, conducting research as a pathway for knowledge construction, and strengthening students’ abilities as critical thinkers.

Conclusions. These findings underscore the usefulness of a simulation-based EAP pedagogy to promote students’ use of the language skills to identify the main points of an argument, research and evaluate sources, defend well-organized arguments, and co-construct knowledge of a timely issue.

Recommendations. The author concludes with some implications for simulation design and adaption.

Keywords

academic language skills constructing knowledge court-hearing critical thinking debriefing English for Academic Purposes (EAP)immigration language simulation simulation design

One of the challenges that language educators face is how to assist non-native speaking English students from different disciplinary backgrounds with their academic English. Specifically, instructors have strived to find ways to create a learning framework which fosters students’ English language proficiency in various contexts of academic study. An approach that enables the integration of new language and knowledge in the teaching of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is the language simulation.

To provide students with a more effective learning environment, language educators have highlighted the benefits of a simulation/gaming approach to teaching a second or foreign language as it “provides a richness in learning, which appears to be unobtainable by other methods” (Crookall & Oxford, 1990, p. 20). Simulation-based curricula have contributed to the process of “declassrooming the classroom” by engaging students in using all their linguistic resources to learn about the world as they research, express personal views, and directly interact with each other in a simulated reality (Garcia-Carbonnell, Rising, Montero, & Watts, 2001, p. 485). Thus, researchers and educators alike have recognized the usefulness of a simulation-centered curriculum in the language classroom (e.g. Damron, 2008; Halleck, 1990; Ruben, 1999; Salies, 2002a, 2002b).

Simulations enhance students’ academic study skills in EAP courses. Researchers have endorsed the role of simulations in helping students with critical thinking and writing skills required in the academia (Kovalik & Kovalik, 2007; Salies, 2002a, 2002b; Salies, 2007). Other researchers have noted the value of simulations in academic writing instruction to assist students in processing and manipulating academic materials in or outside their disciplinary studies (Cheng, 2007; Moder, Seig, & Van Den Elzen, 2002). Additionally, simulations have proven an effective means to boost the motivation of students coming from varied disciplines to recognize the language simulation as a valid venue for developing the oral and writing skills needed in their areas of specialization (Halleck, Moder, & Damron, 2002). A simulation approach to EAP curriculum offers students the opportunity to practice and strengthen other academic skills such as giving oral presentations, participating in class discussions, and conducting research, among others, in order to meet the demands of regular university courses (Naidu, 2007; Reese & Wells, 2007).

The International Composition Program at Oklahoma State University (OSU) has distinguished itself through a remarkable collection of simulations that have been developed and implemented in the curriculum over the years (e.g. Halleck, 2008; Halleck et al., 2002; Knyshevytska & Hill, 2007; Moder et al., 2002; Naidu, 2007; Smythe, 2002). These studies reported that the use of simulations in the context of International Composition Program classes creates a learning environment conducive to practicing and improving the four skills as well as engaging students to explore challenging topics. In response to the need for even more simulations to facilitate the learning objectives of the International Composition Program courses, I had the opportunity to devise my own simulation — ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW — in summer 2010 during which the debate was unfolding at a national scale.

Studies on students’ perceptions of simulations point to the value of a simulation-based approach in the classroom. Andreu-Andres and Garcia-Casas (2011) analyzed the perspectives of 47 engineering students on the use of simulations to help them internalize discipline-specific materials. Among their conclusions was that “students . . . support experiential learning and assert that they learn and have fun with gaming in class” (p. 802). Southerland and Ekker (2011) gathered the responses of 240 university students to examine the extent to which their individual learning styles influenced their attitudes towards team work before and after the simulation. The findings indicated that the simulation experience had a positive impact on students’ attitudes towards collaborative work. A number of researchers examined the perceptions of students participating in language simulations. Angelini, Garcia-Carbonell, and Watts (2014) carried out a study on the experiences of 31 engineering students with a telematic simulation. The study concluded that students developed metalinguistic, methodological, and cognitive awareness after participating in the telematic simulation. Additionally, Moder et al. (2002) compared the responses of students who were enrolled in a simulation-based EAP composition course with those who were enrolled in a more traditional composition course in terms of “enjoyableness” and “usefulness.” The findings showed that “simulation students rated it significantly higher in each category than the traditional curriculum students” (Moder et al., 2002, p. 295). Halleck et al. (2002) evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of a semester-long simulation in an EAP course by analyzing the responses of students who participated in the simulation. The findings suggested the simulation alleviated issues related to group work and peer critique as well as increased student autonomy.

Understanding students’ learning experiences, as shown in the above-discussed studies, underscores the importance of debriefing in a simulation-inspired classroom. Crookall (2010) defined debriefing as “the occasion and activity for the reflection and the sharing of the game experience to turn it into learning” (p. 907). Researchers have emphasized the importance of debriefing in a simulation-based pedagogy (e.g. Andreu-Andres & Garcia-Casas, 2011; Crookall, 2010, 2014; Lederman, 1992; Petranek, 2000; Powers, 2014). As part of the debriefing process, students have the opportunity to express their opinions about the simulation experience — for example, their perceptions of the topic and activities of the simulation — through an in-class discussion or in writing. These activities may enable students to tease out what they learned from the simulation/game. Petranek (2000) highlighted the benefits of written debriefing as “[i]t is the responsibility of the facilitators and professors to harness this raw energy and channel it to allow students to learn more by writing about the experiences and feelings. Writing is another experiential activity that helps to organize our world” (p. 114). By giving students the opportunity to delve into the simulation experience through the written debriefing questionnaire, instructors can gain a deeper understanding of the extent to which the simulation fulfilled its learning objectives. The insights into students’ perspectives on the effectiveness of the use of simulation may yield important implications for the use of language simulations in various EAP pedagogical scenarios.

Through the lens of instructors’ perspectives on simulations, some studies provide evidence for the general effectiveness of a simulation-based pedagogy. Kumar and Lightner (2007) compared the teaching methods of 62 faculty members with those of 45 corporate trainers to identify the teaching technique used by each group. The findings showed that the trainers used a wider variety of classroom techniques, including games, and spent less time on traditional lectures than the faculty members did. The study also investigated the experiences with and attitudes of 68 college students and 5 faculty members towards the use of games in the classroom after the college instructors were trained to shift from traditional lectures to interactive games. The students responded mostly favorably to the simulation experience, with some students commenting that the activities were enjoyable and reached their goal. The faculty members pointed out an improvement in student engagement and class participation as important outcomes of using games in the classroom. Furthermore, Damron (2008) analyzed the perceptions of 12 former and current instructors regarding the use of simulations in the International Composition Program at Oklahoma State University in order to generate some future directions of the program. One the one hand, the instructors indicated that simulations assist students with building schema and developing collaboration, argumentation, and critical thinking skills as well provide a venue to practice all the four skills and express personal views. On the other hand, the instructors reported several pitfalls, such as time management, insufficient focus on the writing skills, the need for strategies to accommodate less proficient students, and the use of simulations suitable for the course goals.

Students’ and instructors’ perceptions of the simulation approach, as discussed by the above-cited authors, highlight the power of simulations in making learning and teaching effective, engaging, and fun. In order to understand the usefulness of a simulation in a specific pedagogical scenario, engaging both instructors’ and students’ experiences with and feedback to the simulation is necessary. In this article, I evaluate the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation, which was designed for and implemented in the International Composition Program courses at Oklahoma State University and discuss the use of this simulation to teach international students who need assistance with academic language skills. By analyzing the instructors’ and the students’ perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of this simulation, I will explore the following research question: How do the instructors and the students perceive the benefits and drawbacks of incorporating the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation in their course?

Methodology

Overview of the Simulation Materials and Activities

The ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation is based on the controversial immigration bill that was signed in 2010 to identify, prosecute, and deport illegal immigrants in Arizona (Archibold, 2010). The simulation was developed to allow intermediate and advanced-level ESL (English as a Second Language) students to familiarize themselves with the issue of illegal immigration in the United States and to help them with second language learning.

In the briefing phase of the simulation, students read news articles and answer reading comprehension questions in order to build some background knowledge about the content and purpose of the Arizona law. Additionally, a listening activity involves playing a radio call-in show from NPR to give students the opportunity to hear both sides of the issue from different perspectives. This activity could be designed as a note-taking exercise where students divide a sheet of paper into half. As they listen to the show, they write the pro arguments in one half and the con arguments in the other. A glossary of immigration terms is handed out prior to the reading and listening activity to facilitate students’ comprehension of the material.

In the next phase — the simulation phase— students participate in a simulated court-hearing in which they assume the roles of the Supreme Judge, state attorneys, district attorneys, and witnesses (see Appendix 1 for the scenario and court procedures as well as the roles provided). Once students receive their role cards, they are required to prepare for the simulation by researching their assigned position.

The last phase of the simulation is debriefing. In addition to an in-class discussion, in this simulation the instructor asks students to complete a debriefing questionnaire (see Appendix 2).

Setting

The simulation was given to 5 instructors who were assigned to teach the following courses in the International Composition Program in Spring 2012: International Composition I and International Composition II (labeled as IC1 and IC2). Each course consisted of 19 students. The International Composition I and II are16-week courses whose primary objective to enable students to write clear, coherent, and well-organized essays by using appropriate rhetorical and citation skills. I created the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation to evaluate the role of this simulation in assisting students to meet the learning objectives of the course. The duration of the simulation was approximately 2 weeks.

Data Collection and Analysis

The instructors administered the 7-item questionnaire during the debriefing stage. They distributed the questionnaire to a total of 95 students. These students participated in the modified version of the simulation. The questionnaire elicited data about the students’ perceptions of the learning outcomes from the simulation and their opinions about their assigned role as well as the court-hearing design of the simulation (see Appendix 2). In presenting the debriefing questionnaire data in this article, I labeled the student participants as “Student #” and their course label. The instructors collected the questionnaires and handed them to me in an envelope. I compiled a total of 90 completed questionnaires in a binder.

I conducted interviews with 5 graduate instructors labeled as Betty, Melanie (co-instructor), Sean, Sidney, and Susan. The 8-item interview elicited information about the preparatory activities that the instructors did to introduce the simulation, how the simulation unfolded in their course section(s), positive and negative aspects of the simulation, and some pedagogical recommendations (see Appendix 3). Each interview took approximately 20 minutes and was held on the OSU-Stillwater campus. I recorded and transcribed the interviews.

I conducted thematic analysis to identify recurrent categories and develop some overarching themes from the data. This method of analyzing qualitative data pinpoints, examines, and develops patterns associated to a specific research question (Braun & Clarke, 2006). I read the transcribed interviews as well as the student data set multiple times to familiarize myself with the data. The next step involved coding the data manually by underlining interesting segments of data and writing tentative words or phrases in the margin of the document. After several rounds of reading and coding the data, I sorted the codes into some preliminary categories and collated different data extracts into the emergent categories in a separate document. I re-read the data extracts to generate connections among categories and develop some broader themes. The last step entailed grouping relevant data extracts in some overarching themes and reviewing the resulting themes in order to ensure that they remain the same each time I encountered a new meaningful segment of text.

Findings and Discussion

In this section, I will discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of integrating the ARIZONA IMMIGRARION LAW simulation in the International Composition courses. These possible benefits and drawbacks will be highlighted with examples from the instructor interviews and student questionnaires.

Instructors’ Evaluations of the Simulation

Using the simulation to enhance students’ academic language skills

The instructors reported that the simulation allowed the students to use and develop the language skills required in regular university courses.

Some instructors noted that using videos to introduce the simulation instead of NPR call-in shows worked better for undergraduate students because the videos are more effective in making the students pay attention to and engage with the content. Therefore, Sean, Betty, and Susan replaced the initial listening activity of the simulation involving NPR call-in show with a few videos to facilitate their students’ understanding of the controversy surrounding the Arizona immigration law.

The benefit of the listening activities to teach the students immigration-specific vocabulary that would be later used in the simulation and their essay was pointed out by Betty in the following statement:

(1) Through the videos they learned some vocabulary . . . but maybe not the words that they use all the time like immigrant and immigration. So I could see that they understood the words from the context but they ended up using them a lot during the simulation and in their writing afterwards. (Betty, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 1)

The instructors indicated that the simulation was the most effective in providing the students with a context to practice and improve their speaking skills. The instructors emphasized the importance of teaching the students to develop the presentation skills required in the academic environment:

(2) They [students] had to present so I tried to stress in this and other simulations that I did not want them to read from a card . . . They were able to speak on their feet. They really had to be able to use oral language to communicate with each other. (Sean, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 10)

This excerpt reinforces that one of the simulation goals was to foster the students’ communicative competence, particularly through speaking. He reported that the students were encouraged to develop fluency in speaking by producing a 3-minute piece of discourse in form of a presentation on the first day of the simulation. In addition to being given the chance to speak freely, on the second day of the simulation the students had the opportunity to improve their discussion skills as they participated in a debate in which they assumed their role to defend their position on the issue, disagree, and persuade, among others. The students, — irrespective of their language proficiency level, — were able to use oral language to express their opinions, thus developing the academic discussion skills needed in their disciplinary courses.

Using the simulation to introduce students to research

The instructors noted that the simulation offered the students the opportunity to construct knowledge about the Arizona law by conducting research on the role assigned to them. The instructors commented on the way the simulation responded to the objectives of the International Composition courses as it allowed the students to make their first entry to research. Specifically, Sidney discussed how she incorporated the simulation in International Composition II in order to achieve the course goals effectively:

(3) The major purpose of [International Composition II] is to help them improve their research writing skills. So I set the major goal for this simulation as developing their information searching and summary writing skills. And I think this simulation played a great job with this goal and most importantly in a fun and enjoyable environment. (Sidney, IC2, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 16)

In excerpt (3), Sidney emphasized that the simulation nourished the research learning objective of the course. A simulation-focused EAP International Composition course promotes strategic and autonomous construction of knowledge through researching all facets of an issue. Sidney also pointed out in the above-excerpt that the simulation breathed new life in her course. The simulation inspired the students to respond positively to simulation activities.

Since the topic of the simulation drew on a timely issue, the instructors felt that the students were mobilized to research an ongoing debate. As observed by Sean, the availability of a variety of current sources on the Arizona law had considerable potential in improving the students’ attitudes towards conducting research to learn more about the issue:

(4) It [the simulation] required students to look at a real life issue and that there are actual sources available, so they could go on the internet and look at real live videos and real life newspapers documents, real articles and find information. It also required them to consolidate all the information and try to make a convincing argument on it. (Sean, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 9)

Excerpt (4) underscores that the simulation promoted experiential learning by creating an authentic learning environment when seeking information in newspapers, journal articles, and the Internet becomes a legitimate practice for students.

Using the simulation to strengthen students’ abilities as critical thinkers

By making the students research and evaluate sources, the instructors assisted them in exploring the Arizona immigration law from different angles. One of the assignments in the courses in which the simulation was implemented was an argumentative essay for which the students were required to take a position on the Arizona law and draw on credible sources and class discussions to write their essay. Both the instructors’ and the students’ responses revealed that the simulation was effective in creating a learning framework conducive to discussion and debate, which had an impact on the betterment of students’ critical thinking skills.

(5) And it [the simulation] really did fit really well into our essay. So, I felt like the time they spent researching was valuable for two reasons: they prepared them for the simulation and it also prepared them for the next essay we wrote. And the skills they began to refine during the simulation were valuable for their writing. They weren’t just on their own or trying to come up with a good argument for their essay. We had time to work it out in the classroom. They got to discuss it and see the opposing sides. So when it came to their essay they already had a good idea of the argument. (Sean, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 9)

The students developed complex strategies like seeking, evaluating, and transferring information as part of the writing process. The use of these strategies as part of the students’ preparation for the essay helped them approach the issue from a variety of angles, which enhanced their motivation to formulate their own opinions. Additionally, Betty noted:

(6) Having them talk about it in class like they did during the debate, I really think that helps them with their writing and it also helps them to pay attention during the simulation, to be more invested since they knew they were going to write about it afterwards. (Betty, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 4)

The simulation enabled the students to brainstorm ideas and negotiate their stance on the issue before they started drafting their essays. The exchange of ideas motivated the students to concentrate on the meaning and language input that were going to be incorporated in their writing. This idea is well illustrated in Susan’s statement: (7) “It’s interesting that even though the simulation did not work well, the essays were really good” (IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 14).

Using the simulation to explore the implications of the accessibility of the topic and simulation design

The topic and simulation design raised varying levels of difficulty for the students not only in processing the legal and political terminology associated with the law but also in performing in a court hearing-like simulation successfully. Even though the instructors recognized that the simulation allowed for a meaningful intellectual engagement with a timely issue in the United States, they pointed out some challenges related to the accessibility of the topic and simulation design. The instructors explained that due to the complex vocabulary of the reading and listening materials as well as the intricate courtroom procedures included in the initial format of the simulation, they deemed it appropriate to modify the simulation to make it more accessible to the students. Particularly, Susan’s evaluation of the effectiveness of using this simulation in the International Composition I indicated that the simulation did not fit the context of her class:

(8) You know, none of the activities worked well because it was very high level. I think it was not only linguistically challenging for them but it was also challenging as a theme because I have a feeling they have not retained most of it . . . My students felt that they were never really happy with this simulation. I felt that when the simulation was going on they were not feeling at ease. (Susan, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 12)

Susan also explained that since a significant portion of her students shared the same L1 and had limited English language proficiency, the class demographics did not provide them with enough opportunities to interact with each other in English and exchange perspectives on an issue outside their general knowledge. As a result, she reported that the simulation raised issues of comprehension and internalization of the materials at both conceptual and linguistic levels. Based on her assumption about the students’ genuine interest and maturity of thought to engage in a topic with some many political, social, and legal ramifications, her recommendation was that the simulation not be run in an undergraduate level course.

While some instructors acknowledged that the difficulty of the topic, they pointed out the value of using current topics for simulation to improve the students’ attitudes about using their language skills as they research and debate about a real life issue:

(9) It’s a really good topic for students to be able to research and write about. And they did. I think it was challenging for them but it wasn’t beyond their level. I think the research topics in the class need to be challenging for them so that they have to find outside information to include in their essays. So, I think this topic was just at the right level. (Betty, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 4)

Here, Betty highlighted the importance of integrating simulations with complex topics in order to generate opportunities for students to foster the skills required in an academic context — research and critical thinking skills.

With respect to the initial design of the simulation as a court-hearing, the instructor participants modified it in order to accommodate the students with lower levels of proficiency and to make it more relevant for the objectives of the course. The instructors decided to change the court-hearing design of the simulation to individual presentations and open debate.

(10) When I was reading through it [the simulation] I thought it was complicated. Based on their participation in the previous simulations I don’t think their language skills were strong enough to understand. I mean, I gave them a pretty simple debate format for the first simulation and they still had a hard time understanding it. So with all those intricate roles and so and so questions, I did not see that unfold very well. (Betty, IC1, Instructor Interview Transcript Page 2)

As suggested in excerpt (10), Betty considered that the students’ proficiency level would have not allowed them to perform well in a courtroom simulation. As a result, the instructors collaborated to create a new design of the simulation in which the students still had their own individual role card but they presented with a partner to the judge on the first day of simulation and participated in a more open debate (still assuming their role) on the second day.

Students’ Perceptions of the Simulation

Developing aural-oral skills

The listening activities in the briefing phase provided students with comprehensible input. The use of authentic audio visual materials in the briefing stage may give students an easier time to build language schemata in preparation for the simulation phase. Additionally, students noticed that the listening activities helped them alleviate difficulties with note taking and summarizing: “Taking a note is important because I can summary other opinions well”(Student 1, IC1); “I know how to summarize from I done and heard in class” (Student 2, IC2). These statements highlight the benefit of using audio-visually focused briefing activities to help students internalize unfamiliar source materials through note-taking and summarizing, key learning objectives of an EAP International Composition course.

The students suggested that the simulation increased their motivation to become more proficient speakers. They acknowledged that good speaking skills correlated with a successful participation in the simulation by formulating complex ideas and opinions: “The most important thing that I learned in this simulation is speaking skill. I can learn speaking skill through argue my opinion” (Student 3, IC1).

Conducting research as pathway for developing argumentation and critical thinking skills

Since most students in International Composition I were fairly new to research, culling sources about the Arizona law made them realize that learning how to research an ongoing national state debate could assist them with constructing clear arguments in other academic settings: “I used several sources to improved my statement & I explained it clearly” (Student 4, IC1); “I learned that sources can help me a lot when arguing with people in general” (Student 5, IC1). These statements reveal that the simulation contributed to the learning objectives of International Composition I with regard to research skills. As the students gathered sources to either boost their argument or refute the opposing position, they got exposed to language input, especially through the legal and political vocabulary associated with the Arizona law.

In addition to conducting research, the debate format of the simulation provided students with a rich repertoire of possibilities to build their argument: “I think that listening to other opinions is very important because I can rethink about the issues again” (Student 6, IC1); “The simulation makes me think about more than one aspect” (Student 7, IC2). As indicated by these students, the simulation allowed them to engage critically with a timely issue as they articulated their own views and listened to differing perspectives on the Arizona law. This exchange of opinions enriched their understanding of the law and helped them with argument construction.

Conclusion

Considering the instructors’ and the students’ responses to the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation, one can conclude that the integration of this simulation in the International Composition Program courses offered the students meaningful learning opportunities. The findings demonstrate that the simulation promoted the students’ use of the language skills to identify the main points of an argument, research and evaluate sources to plan their presentation, defend well-organized arguments in front of an audience, and co-construct knowledge of the Arizona law.

One of the benefits of the simulation was that it enabled the students to practice and improve their language skills. The adaption of the simulation design in IC1 and IC2 accommodated the students with varying levels of language proficiency to practice their speaking skills. This finding complements previous language simulation studies that praised the role of simulations in enhancing students’ presentational and discussion skills at the academic level (Gaudart, 1999; Halleck et al., 2002; Salies, 2002b; Naidu, 2007; Reese & Wells, 2007). Moreover, the use of visual media in the briefing phase in IC1 and IC2 is consistent with Bullard’s (1990) approach to designing briefing activities to boost students’ language schema as well as their participation in the simulation. Not only did the simulation socialize the students into the academic language skills but also showed them the importance of communicative competence in language learning. The students’ interaction with the instructor and with other students during group work compelled them to utilize their linguistic resources in real time. This interaction was perceived by the instructors and the students as a step forward towards communicative competence. As Garcia-Carbonnell et al. (2001) affirm, “simulation is an ideal medium for achieving this exchange because it reproduces a real situation that requires the understanding and the use of the language . . .,leading to the internationalization of new linguistic knowledge” (p. 486).

A second benefit of the simulation was that it promoted another critical academic study skill — conducting research. While for some students in IC1 the simulation represented their first entry into research, the students in IC2 refined their information searching abilities. The instructors’ and the students’ attitudes to the simulation confirm the value of experiential learning in mobilizing the students to gather, evaluate, and retain new information more effectively (Garcia-Carbonnell et al., 2001; Naidu, 2007; Salies, 2002a, 2002b). As Salies (2002b) observed, simulations which draw on timely issues are attractive to students. Since the simulation was based on an issue to which most L2 students were able to relate, they were invested in constructing knowledge about the Arizona law. Gathering information became a meaningful and relevant task. Similar to Naidu (2007), an added benefit was building language schema that students used and adapted in various contexts throughout the simulation and in their writing.

A third benefit was that the simulation promoted the students’ abilities as critical thinkers as it encouraged them to explore multiple perspectives on the issue and construct a well-supported argument. The instructors’ responses corroborate the benefits that Salies (2002a) found in using language simulations in an EAP writing classroom — selecting, critiquing, comparing, and transferring information as part of students’ argument construction. This conclusion also supports the views of Crookall and Oxford (1990) who argued that language simulations enable learners to explore and generate abstract ideas. As students engaged with the social and political implications of the Arizona law, the simulation accomplished the goal of creating a space for “issue exploration, view sharing, and argument strengthening” (Kovalik & Kovalik, 2007, p. 321). It is important to design simulations which challenge students not only at the linguistic level but also at the conceptual level to give students the opportunity to wrestle with issues that affect the society at large. Such simulations facilitate critical thinking and argumentation skills.

While the simulation provided the students with a context for intellectual engagement with timely issue, the topic and the structure of the simulation had its problems in facilitating the students’ internalization of the pedagogical materials. Although the findings support Moder et al. (2002) recommendation for the incorporation of simulations with complex content in the curriculum, the evaluation of the use of this simulation in the International Composition Program courses yielded important implications for simulation design and adaption. Cummings and Genzel (1990) explained that designing a simulation should carefully consider its format, content, and structure in relation to the learning objectives of a pedagogical setting. Since the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation was created particularly for language learning, the court-hearing content and structure seemed to raise language difficulties for the students. The debriefing stage of the simulation revealed that the students’ level of language proficiency prevented them from retaining complex legal and political vocabulary and successfully participating in a courtroom hearing. Some instructors also noted the students’ language difficulties and unfamiliarity with the US court proceedings as areas of concern for running a court simulation. As a result, the adaption of the courtroom hearing structure into a more generic pro/con debate seemed a practical venue to ease students’ language use and learning but still help them become familiar and engage with a US national debate. Providing students with a stimulating context to develop their language skills by learning about an aspect of the target culture corroborates with Jung and Levitin (2002), who highlighted the value of simulations in allowing students to use the language to construct knowledge about another culture. With these considerations in mind, language simulations may need to be modified to fit various instructional contexts in order for the pedagogical materials to become accessible and motivating for the students and meet the learning objectives of the course. Further research could zoom into the possible differences in terms of the effectiveness of running this simulation as a pro/con debate versus a court-hearing.

The relevance of the written debriefing to the simulation’s objectives, course objectives, and student themselves deserve special attention. By addressing each item of the debriefing questionnaire, the students took the opportunity to reflect more systematically on the simulation experience. The use of the debriefing questionnaire demonstrated that the simulation accomplished the goal of helping students practice and improve the four skills and introducing them to an aspect of the US political and social arena. Additionally, the findings of the questionnaire provided evidence that the simulation achieved the course objectives to enhance students’ academic language abilities, build schemata through academic research, and stimulate critical thinking. Most importantly, the questionnaire allowed students for a space to open up and discuss what the simulation meant to them as language learners and individuals. The written responses revealed metacognitive awareness, increased confidence, and overall enjoyment of the simulation experience. The students’ comments also showed their investment in the simulation and engagement with the Arizona law.

In conclusion, the ARIZONA IMMIGRATION LAW simulation was a rich learning framework in which the students practiced and improved the study skills needed in a second language academic context. The analysis of the integration of this simulation in different courses in the International Composition Program underscores its usefulness as a learning tool in the EAP pedagogy.

Footnotes

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3 Acknowledgements

Many thanks to the reviewers of this research study for their valuable comments and suggestions.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biography

Ana M. Codita, PhD, is a lecturer at Case Western Reserve University, where she teaches EAP and seminar-based academic writing courses to L2 students. As a strong believer in the effectiveness of language simulations, she has been incorporating them in her classes for many years.

Contact: amc254@case.edu.

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