Abstract
This article outlines strategies for using thinking routines in the general music classroom to foster deeper learning. Based on the Artful Thinking program, a model developed by Harvard’s Project Zero in collaboration with Traverse City [Michigan] Area Public Schools, thinking routines were developed to draw students into a more meaningful art experience and foster critical thinking habits. By using these thinking routines in the general music classroom, we can encourage students to develop thinking dispositions, or habits of mind, that promotes full engagement in music learning.
I remember being told in high school that we only accessed a small portion of our brain, about the size of our thumb, and that we really did not comprehend the potential of human learning. My teacher compared the complexities of our brain to the deep mysteries of the ocean, full of wonders and possibilities waiting to be discovered. I have been fascinated with the brain ever since, and I have always hoped I would find a way to unlock the hidden treasure of a fully-activated mind.
Although I still would like to find a way to increase my brain capacity, over the past several decades, my interest has shifted toward student learning and brain development. I value traditional learning experiences (I think it is important for students to be able to demonstrate what they can do in certain disciplines), but have often been frustrated by the lack of depth in what we seem to focus on in education. It often seems we are content to use only a small “thumb”-size portion of our brain and do not require students to use their full potential.
In recent years, we have focused much of our educational efforts on student ability. We have developed standards outlining what students should know and be able to do in a variety of subjects and we are developing standardized tests to evaluate student ability. Perkins, Tishman, Ritchhart, Donis, and Andrade (2000) described how our ability-centric society was a reflection of our limited view of intelligence. From IQ testing to current standardized measures of student success, our society tends to focus on only a small part of the brain and emphasizes what can easily be viewed and assessed. This ability-centric view of intelligence is a major concern, not only because we know the brain is capable of so much more but because we know the world of tomorrow requires so much more.
As we consider the future and what lies ahead for our current generation of students, we can make a compelling case for broadening our definition of intelligence and for developing a more creative curriculum. We know the world is changing rapidly. In Out of Our Minds, author Ken Robinson (2011) outlined a workforce that is shifting away from manufacturing, is seeing a substantial increase in new technologies, and is coping with an increasingly strained supply of natural resources. How will the world look when current kindergarten students reach adulthood? What will be required of leaders in future generations?
Although we cannot predict what the next 50 years will look like, we can be certain that the children in our classrooms today will face challenges particularly unique to their generation, challenges that will require creative and innovative solutions. Mohamed A. El-Erian (2012), writing for The Atlantic, stated, The implications go beyond encouraging the young to remain in school and a more effective financial commitment to the sector. Further progress is needed in evolving curriculums to ensure their relevance for today’s quickly re-aligning world. And this evolution needs to be made more global, interactive and engaging, thus fueling the type of intellectual curiosity that anchors mental agility that is so helpful in today’s fluid world. (Para. 18).
The ideas expressed by El-Erian are not new. In How We Think, John Dewey (1910/1997) wrote about the need for students to think critically. Dewey proposed a curriculum that would encourage students to question, probe, and reflect on what they were learning and to be more actively engaged in the learning process. Since Dewey’s time, education leaders have continued to decry the need for a more actively engaged, thinking student-body. More recently, Ellen Langer, Harvard professor and author of the book The Power of Mindful Learning (1998), wrote that learning occurs when people are able to create new categories, are open to new information, and are aware of multiple perspectives. Langer proposed teachers could promote mindful learning by avoiding routine and rote learning, introducing novelty into the classroom, and encouraging students to look at things from different perspectives.
Langer’s work reflects the shift away from a single definition of intelligence focused entirely on the acquisition of knowledge to a broader definition that acknowledges the importance of thinking dispositions; how we think is as important as what we think. Langer is not the first to research mindfulness; nor is she alone in her efforts. In fact, numerous researchers have documented the role of thinking dispositions in learning (Baron, 1985; Perkins, 1995; Perkins et al., 2000). These thinking dispositions are defined as “broad intellectual behaviors that include skill but also include attitudes, motivations, emotions, and other elements typically left out of ability-centered accounts of good thinking” (Tishman, 2001, p. 72). Student attitudes, motivations, and emotions have always played a key role in music education, and general music teachers often develop lessons that focus on concepts and attitudes requiring students to think deeply about music making and music meaning. It is, however, challenging to focus on and document student thinking that extends beyond skill development.
Drawing on the research on thinking dispositions and the principles of brain-based learning (Caine & Caine, 1990), a group of educators and educational researchers developed a program called Artful Thinking (Traverse City Public Schools & Project Zero, n.d.; http://www.old-pz.gse.harvard.edu/tc/overview.cfm). These educational leaders, working in collaboration with Harvard’s Project Zero and the Traverse City [Michigan] Public Schools, focused specifically on the concept of thinking dispositions and the arts. As a result, they developed a program designed to integrate arts into the classroom. Although this program was developed for classroom teachers as a way to help them make connections among the arts and other curricular topics, it also has implications for general music teachers looking for ways to connect their students to a deeper engagement with music learning.
A key element in the Artful Thinking program is the development of six thinking dispositions: (1) Questioning and Investigating, (2) Observing and Describing, (3) Comparing and Connecting, (4) Finding Complexity, (5) Exploring Viewpoints, and (6) Reasoning (Figure 1). These six dispositions are seen as powerful ways to explore the arts and to encourage more thoughtful, higher order thinking. Each of the six dispositions is explored by “thinking routines,” or short strategies designed to deepen students’ learning.
Sample thinking dispositions and thinking routines.
Thinking Routines
As an example, let us explore the thinking disposition of Questioning and Investigating. Students develop this disposition when they are allowed to explore, imagine, wonder about, and question what they hear. The I Hear/I Think/I Wonder thinking routine was identified as one way to encourage students to develop this thinking disposition or habit of mind. After listening to music, the students are asked what they heard and what the music made them think about. The teacher might ask the students to consider what the composer was thinking about when he/she wrote the music. Not all music has a story line, yet the students can be encouraged to use their imagination to hypothesize the inspiration for the music. This routine requires students to listen thoughtfully and think creatively and, asking students to complete the sentence, “I wonder” sets the stage for deeper inquiry.
Recently, while listening to Saint-Saëns’s Le carnaval des animaux, I asked a group of first graders to listen to L’éléphant and describe what they heard. After we talked about the music, I asked them what animal it sounded like. We had a lot of different answers, but many of them identified an elephant and talked about the low, slow music. After we discussed the song, we played an “I wonder” game. “I wonder what a song about _________ would sound like.” Students were asked to identify an animal to fill in the blank and then we brainstormed what the music might sound like. Not only did the first graders have some creative ideas, this activity set up future listening lessons for additional movements of the Saint-Saën piece.
Another thinking routine associated with Questioning and Investigating is Creative Questions. This routine requires students to brainstorm at least 12 questions about a piece of music. “Why was it composed?” “What if . . .?” “What is the purpose of . . .?” “How would it be different if?” “What would you change?” Teachers are encouraged to use Creative Questions to expand and deepen students’ thinking about music and to motivate students to ask questions. Creative Questions often focuses the students’ attention on specific music elements and requires them to use music vocabulary as they question and investigate music.
“The Star-Spangled Banner” is an excellent example of how we can use this thinking routine in the middle school music classroom. By asking students to listen to the music and create creative questions, we draw students into a deeper understanding of our national anthem. I have had students pose very interesting questions such as, “What would be different if the lyrics had been written by a woman?” “What would you change if you were going to write a national anthem?” and “How might the music sound different if it was written today?” The students’ questions have led to some lively classroom debates.
Because the brain is complex, and because we want our students to think “outside the limits” of true and false or yes and no questions, many of the thinking routines ask the students to question what they hear and what they think. The Claim/Support/Question routine encourages students to listen thoughtfully to music, interpret what they hear, hypothesize about the composer’s intent, and consider different perspectives. A similar thinking routine focuses on the question What Makes You Say That? This routine encourages evidence based reasoning as students are asked to interpret what they hear, describe what they think is happening, and ultimately justify their answers.
The What Makes you Say That? routine works particularly well as part of a fourth grade unit on Mozart’s Magic Flute. In the first act, Papageno sings “Der Vogelfänger bin ich ja”, describing in a playful manner Papageno’s desire to catch a wife. The students enjoy listening to this piece, and it allows me to set up the story line of the opera. In a later lesson, I have the students listen to part of the Finale, “Papagena! Papageno!” and I ask what they think has happened. With each possible explanation, I ask the students “what makes you say that?” Students often refer to the music elements in both “Der Vogelfänger bin ich ja” and “Papagena! Papageno!” as they explain their hypothesis.
Many of the thinking routines cross between two or more of the dispositions. What Makes You Say That requires students to both Observe and Describe and Question and Investigate. The thinking routine Perceive/Know/Care About is related to several thinking dispositions and is particularly effective when working with opera or music-theater. After showing a short scene, students might be asked to imagine they are one of the characters. By encouraging students to “step inside” the character and imagine what it would be like to live in that world, students must consider different perspectives. This activity encourages students to investigate, describe, question, and imagine different viewpoints. By extending the project, the music teacher could work through each of the six thinking dispositions. Having students write short stories, create music to accompany their story line, or write poetry from the perspective of one of the characters encourages students to think outside of their own experiences, investigate a different time period and/or culture, and think about different perspectives.
By using several thinking routines to guide planning, teachers can develop lessons that require students to think deeply and to move away from the quick and superficial “I like this” or “I don’t like this” response. Taking the time to investigate a musical or opera from different viewpoints requires students to go “deeper.” The thinking routine, Perceive/Know/Care About is an excellent strategy to use as a concluding activity. Asking students to write or talk about what a specific character perceives to be true, knows or believes in, and cares about, requires them to think about different viewpoints, consider alternative perspectives, and describe different belief systems. Asking students to think about how the music reinforces the character’s story line allows the students to connect music elements and artistic expression.
Often, I use thinking dispositions as a guide when planning large units of study. There are, however, several thinking routines that can energize daily classroom activities. In the Elaboration Game, students listen to an excerpt from a piece of music and one person describes what she hears. Another person elaborates on the first person’s description, adding more detail. A third person elaborates further by adding yet more detail. This activity does not take a great deal of time but requires students to find new ways to describe what they hear. Listening: Ten Times Two is a similar routine and is particularly effective in the general music classroom. After listening to a musical excerpt, students are asked to list 10 words or phrases that describe what they heard. The music is then played a second time and students are asked to expand their original list by adding 10 more words. This routine encourages students to extend their initial thoughts, listen for more subtle details in the music, and think about new ways to describe sound. The music teacher can tailor this activity to reinforce music concepts being studied in class by asking students to listen and describe specific music elements.
Another thinking routine applicable to general music is the Connect/Extend/Challenge routine. This routine, related to the thinking disposition Comparing and Connecting, is particularly effective when introducing music from different cultures. After listening to a new piece of music, I ask my students to connect the new music to what they have already heard. By charting the responses using a Venn diagram, I can connect new sounds to what the class has listened to in the past and highlight new ideas. I have worked to extend my students’ thinking by comparing music from different cultures and asking what was different, what new musical ideas were present, what confused them (sounds, instruments, language) and what, if anything, was puzzling to them. These questions have led to some interesting group discussions; I often learn more about my students from the language they use and the insights they share.
To this point, I have focused on listening and describing music. These ideas do, however, have direct application to music making. When our students are actively engaged in singing and playing music, we can use the thinking routines to explore musical choices. I often ask my students to play or sing a phrase using different tempos, dynamic levels, and/or articulation patterns. By incorporating the thinking routines into rehearsals, students are motivated to try new ways of performing and they have a framework for making musical decisions.
Conclusions
It is impossible for us to predict what life will be like for our students in this fast-paced, ever-changing, globally- influenced world. While most of us want to prepare our students to be successful citizens, we must admit that we do not really know what that is going to look like in ten, twenty, or thirty years. What we do know is our students will need more than facts and figures to contribute and thrive in society. We know that students will have to think flexibly, evaluate critically, and work creatively to solve new problems and develop new technologies.
Although we may not have the answers to the questions we struggle to articulate, research on mindfulness has provided valuable insight into how we can foster flexible and creative thinking in our classrooms (Ritchhart & Perkins, 2000). By developing thinking dispositions, our students will become more observant as they learn to consider alternative perspectives, think creatively, and investigate complex questions.
We have, over the past quarter of a century, learned more about the mysteries of the deep. We have discovered new species of life as we have explored regions of the ocean that were, for centuries, inaccessible. With the help of new technologies, we can now see at depths previously unimagined. Yet we know there is much more to learn. Likewise, we have made great strides in understanding how the brain operates. Magnetic resonance imaging can map brain activity and we can now explore the hidden regions of the mind, yet much of the brains inner workings remain a mystery. We may never fully understand how the brain works, but by using thinking routines, we may be able to glimpse how our students’ minds work as they participate in activities and projects that involve deep thinking and full engagement in the learning process.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.