Abstract
In the early part of the 1970s, multicultural music education began in earnest and was focused primarily on the curriculum used for music: textbooks, method books, and repertoire. At the turn of the 21th century, however, culturally responsive teaching emerged as the predominant pedagogy for relating to students. It was considered a student-centered approach to learning, and to date, culturally responsive teaching has been gaining momentum in education and in music education. Simultaneously, there have been discussions in music education surrounding equity and access to music for all. These discussions have resulted in more urgency to include all students in general music through the completion of high school. Culturally responsive teaching, therefore, is poised to become an important approach to equity and access to music for all. What follows is a brief history of the movement and how culturally responsive teaching can become an integral part of all teachers’ approaches to music.
Keywords
Multicultural education has long been the benchmark for including diversity in the American public school curriculum. It was defined as “a field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this purpose, content, concepts, principles, theories, and paradigms from history, the social and behavioral sciences, and particularly from ethnic studies and women’s studies” (Banks & Banks, 2001, p. xii). By extension, multicultural music education was defined as “the teaching of a broad spectrum of music cultures in the music curriculum, primarily focused on ethnocultural characteristics” (Volk, 1998, p. 4). The 1970s saw the earliest conceptualizations of multicultural education and its applications in music.
The enormous amount of social change in the 1960s and early 1970s contributed to an extensive reexamination of music education in public schools in America. Substantial scrutiny of the curriculum occurred (Banks & Banks, 2001; Gorski, 1999), and the prevailing wisdom was that schools should be more inclusive in their approach to curricula and school policies/practices and that these approaches should reflect the racial diversity of the United States. Thus, multicultural education delivered via curricular changes in music and all subjects was perceived as one of the best ways to bridge the gaps between the White majority and historically marginalized groups.
Multicultural music education became more prominent as time moved on and was practiced more frequently across the United States in the 1980s and 1990s. Including and engaging students with primarily ethnic content became the norm in American public school curricula as well us teacher preparation programs (Education Encyclopedia, 2014). Multiculturalism was further developed as textbooks were revised and teaching standards were refined. In music, this meant that music textbooks, method books, repertoire, and materials were more inclusive of music of varying ethnic backgrounds and/or different countries. Music educators were strongly encouraged to include ethnic content in the music curriculum regularly so that students had access to the experiences of singing and/or playing the music of other cultures.
As multiculturalism became the new normal in public schools across the nation, negative aspects of multicultural education were exposed and criticized (Gorski, 1999). Culturally oppressive teaching approaches through the use of curricular multiculturalism have been raised as a barrier to a meaningful education (Adams, Bell, Goodman, & Joshi, 2016). One such approach to teaching has involved teachers as the gatekeepers of knowledge who then dole out that knowledge to students, instead of students being encouraged to construct new knowledge based on research, content area study, and relatable experiences (Freire, 1970). As music teachers, this has been an issue, particularly in secondary-level general music, bands, orchestras, and choirs because this approach included sharing a limited range of texts and literature written by (and for) the nonmarginalized majority (Villegas & Lucas, 2002). For many years, methods and materials for secondary-level music classes were based solely on music from the Western canon and included very little music literature and content from other non-Western cultures, different genres or styles, or from composers of color (Lind & McKoy, 2016; National Public Radio, 2017). These approaches can be referred to as the cultural deficit model, and this has been defined as
. . . stem[ming] from negative beliefs and assumptions regarding the ability, aspirations, and work ethic of systematically marginalized peoples. The cultural deficit model was based on the assertion that students of color and low-income students often fail to do well in school because of perceived “cultural deprivation” or lack of exposure to cultural models more obviously congruent with school success. (Irizarry, 2009, para. 2)
Finally, classroom climate has been another area of concern: the décor of many classrooms was perceived to be Euro-centric, without regard for the significant cultural contributions of many from marginalized populations (Banks & Banks, 2004; Gay, 2003, 2004; Nieto & Bode, 2008; Sleeter & Grant, 2009). Music teachers have often included classroom décor based on the Western canon and have had difficulty incorporating music and musicians of other genres, styles, or cultures. This approach has limited students in exploring music and musicians of diverse backgrounds as part of a more holistic music education (National Public Radio, 2017).
As the 21th century began, the ways in which music teachers understood the idea of culture began to change. Teachers began to comprehend that culture was associated with a student’s beliefs, motivations, and even social groups and norms; that is, culture encompassed many values beyond simply race and ethnicity. Culturally responsive teaching, by extension, was defined differently than multiculturalism in that it was considered a student-centered approach to learning, whereas multiculturalism in education was considered a curriculum-centered approach to learning (Lynch, 2011). By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, culturally responsive teaching was gaining momentum in the world of education as well as in the music education profession. At the same time, there have been many discussions in the music education community surrounding equity and access to music for all students. These discussions have resulted in a greater sense of urgency to include all students in schools in general music through the completion of high school, rather than ending music education in elementary school for those not choosing to participate in an ensemble in middle and high school. Culturally responsive teaching, therefore, is poised to become an important approach to equity and access to music for all (Allsup, 2016; Lind & McKoy, 2016).
Culturally Responsive Teaching
So what is culturally responsive teaching? Culturally responsive teaching is defined as “Using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2010, p. 31). Culturally responsive teaching provides opportunities for all students (and teachers!) to learn about and legitimize the cultural heritages of themselves and others, while using multicultural curricular materials to explicitly connect culture to music content knowledge, skill development, and dispositions (Lind & McKoy, 2016).
Of course, the question most frequently asked by a music teacher is “Does culturally responsive teaching change what I do?” And the answer is “Yes, of course!” Culturally responsive teaching goes beyond teaching ethnically based music literature or content to students. Rather culturally responsive teaching is a comprehensive approach to demonstrating understanding of who students are (and who we are, as teachers), how, and why they operate in the world, and then making decisions about what will be learned based on this information. For music teachers, this approach is much more student-driven and culturally relevant to students than the more curricular-driven idea of multicultural music education.
Culturally responsive teaching fundamentally changes what teachers do, because teachers’ knowledge of the cultural legacies of themselves and their students can influence the delivery of music content as well as students’ ability to gain knowledge, skills, and appropriate dispositions in school music environments. For example, getting to know students well is one common way to employ culturally responsive teaching. Understanding students’ identities, achievements, and perspectives enables music teachers to affirm diversity and strengthen the connections between school music, home music, and community music (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Gay, 2010; Lind & McKoy, 2016). Music teachers may opt to engage students in informal dialogue, complete an age-appropriate music profile (used to describe music preferences), and get to know families’ music heritages (Lind & McKoy, 2017). Other strategies include attending community music performances in which students are engaged (Lind & McKoy, 2016) and creating an inquiry project whereby students conduct research into their own cultural and music heritages and backgrounds. Sharing findings with the teacher and the rest of the students in the class offers the presenting student a bridge between home and school music, an opportunity to develop their music identity further, and also can be an important building block in the development of caring and accepting relationships with others (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011).
Equity is also an important aspect of culturally responsive teaching (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011; Gay, 2010) and getting to know students enables equity. Knowing students well enough to know what they need, what motivates them, how and why they learn, engage, and collaborate, and how to stretch them musically allows music teachers to provide equity in classroom music environments (Allsup, 2016; Brown-Jeffy, 2011). One way in which music teachers can both get to know their students and also employ an equitable approach to classroom discussion is to avoid taking volunteers when questions are asked. Volunteers inevitably end up being the same students each time discussion questions are asked in music classrooms. Choosing students to respond, however, enables all students the opportunity to participate, get to know one another, and also promotes engagement and collaboration. In this way, music teachers empower students by providing supportive learning communities (Lind & McKoy, 2016).
Legitimizing a wide variety of music is also a way of validating students and their experiences in the world. And this is an opportunity to use multicultural music content in ways that are very culturally responsive in the formal music curriculum. As music teachers, we may have difficulty exploring music beyond the Western canon, however, our students are experiencing music in many different ways that may have almost nothing to do with Western art music. Examining various genres, styles, and composers of music with our students signals to them that differences are welcome (thus, they are welcome) and that this content is worthy of our time, energy, and effort to study (Gay, 2010; National Public Radio, 2017).
In addition, this unique approach to scholarship and skill acquisition offers all students the ability to learn using a widely varying approach to instructional strategies (Gay, 2010). A few culturally responsive instructional strategies that work well in both general music and music performance-based classrooms include the following:
Chunking: The opportunity to break down difficult music questions or problems into smaller and more manageable chunks. This works well using a wide variety of both Western and non-Western music as well as popular music.
Scaffolding: Incrementally increasing the difficulty of music and/or the study of music ideas or issues. Scaffolding can promote transfer of learning in a variety of music environments by using simpler music (folk songs, pop tunes) at first and moving into more complex music as students age (world music, music from the Western canon).
Exit surveys: Have students complete a short 3-question survey (paper and pencil) at the end of class to determine what they learned and retained and to ask what additional ideas or thoughts they may have for further study of the concept(s) or areas for transfer of learning.
Think-pair-share: Have students consider their own response to a music question, chat their responses over with a neighbor, and share with the remainder of the class.
Many music teachers use these teaching methods already as part of their typical classroom instructional strategies. Consider taking one of these ideas, however, and using it to facilitate culturally responsive teaching. The idea of chunking, for example, could be employed to “Analyze the structure and context of varied musical works and their implications for performance” (National Association for Music Education Standards, First Grade General Music, Performing: Analyze Standard). One of the clarifying objectives of this goal is to “With limited guidance, demonstrate knowledge of music concepts (such as beat and melodic contour) in music from a variety of cultures selected for performance” (National Association for Music Education Standards, First Grade Music, Performing: Analyze, MU:Pr4.2.1a, 2014a, p. 6). Teachers could use three music pieces in contrasting styles that are important/special to their students to determine both the use of beat and the melodic contour (and how they differ for each).
Here are three examples that may work with the objective above—Flo Rida’s Good Feeling (rap), Rachel Platten’s Fight Song (pop ballad), and the Gipsy Kings’ Hay Un Amigo En Mi (from the movie Toy Story 3). Using these three different styles also capitalizes on the students’ familiarity and popularity of the tunes they may be hearing through pop culture and the mainstream media. The teacher is using the tunes as part of a collaborative activity with the students to both (a) get to know them as human beings and (b) to get to know what genres and styles of music they already know and like. Additionally, using more familiar music (whatever that may be for your particular students) for teaching objectives contained in the National Standards (National Association for Music Education, 2014a, 2014b) is a way to connect school music with home and community music experiences the students may be having outside of school. An assignment like this may also serve as an excellent launching place into further exploration of music genres, various types of instruments and voices, the study and interpretation of simple text/lyrics, and other music ideas, which speaks to the instructional strategy of scaffolding as students’ age.
In a general music course designed for middle or high school students (for which there are no national standards), a similar project could be undertaken using the Responding strand of the Music Standards (Ensemble). The Responding strand could be employed by allowing students to select, analyze, interpret, and evaluate music in a variety of settings “according to their interests, experiences, understandings, and purposes” (National Association for Music Education, 2014b, p. 5). The project guidelines might look something like this:
Responding to Music Project
Choose a ritual or event that typically includes music. It can be an event with which you are familiar or not. Here are some examples—weddings, funerals, celebrations, initiations, festivals, protests, rallies, religious events, wars, working in various industries (e.g., miners, sailors, agricultural workers, slaves, cowboys, railroad workers, parenting, etc.).
Plan a program of music for your chosen ritual or event by selecting music that represents the event or ritual.
Analyze and interpret the music of your chosen event by discussing what the music means, how it functions, and its purposes. Discuss the context of the music, the expressive intent of the artist(s), the interpretation of text and music elements, and the connections or interest you may have to the music you chose.
Evaluate your project, including the event or ritual you chose and the music used to convey that event. Did the music you chose express the value of the event? What types of sources did you find to support your choices of music? Do you think other forms of art are also used in this event or ritual (dance, theater/acting, visual art, storytelling, literature)?
Finally, reflect on your project. What did you learn? What was most interesting to you? What would you like to learn about next?
Conclusions
Reaching students currently enrolled in schools may be more difficult when the cultural characteristics of the population of teachers as compared to the population of students is considered. There are approximately 3.5 million K–12 teachers currently in the United States. Of those, 76% identified as female and 84% identified as White, non-Hispanic (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). With regard to the students, there are 55.6 million P–12 students currently in schools. Of those, 51% identified as male and 49% identified as female (no data were collected on students or teachers who identified themselves as gender nonconforming). Additionally, approximately 52% indicated they are White, non-Hispanic; 24% as Latino/Hispanic/Spanish; 14% as Black; 5% as Asian; 4% as multiracial; and 1% as American Indian or Native Alaskan (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). Furthermore, more than 13% of American school children are diagnosed with a disability (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). Consequently, when comparing teachers’ cultural backgrounds to those of students, there are stark differences. Culturally responsive teaching, however, can be the bridge that builds on the strengths of all students by fostering identity, affirming multiple ways of knowing, and validating culture and heritage.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.