General Music Today Music Ideas Series,Viewpoints in Secondary General Music,Article 3,Seeds of General Music in the Secondary Ensemble: Time to Branch Out!

Abstract

In the third segment of the series, we explore general music behaviors and techniques that may be incorporated into the secondary performing ensemble in order to provide enrichment and depth to performance-focused instruction. Using research-based evidence and ensemble experience in both the choral and instrumental settings, we will discuss methods for incorporating and integrating the general music behaviors of (a) listening, (b) moving, and (c) singing into the ensemble experience within traditional rehearsal techniques and practices. The focus will be placed on the experience of these practices as they relate to performance goals, in contrast to the typical general music experience of these behaviors where they are the primary goal. Techniques and resources will be applicable in a variety of secondary ensemble settings.

Keywords

elementary general music music education music ensembles secondary general music

In the final of three in this series, we explore general music values and techniques and their incorporation into the traditional secondary instrumental or choral ensemble setting (i.e., band, choir, and orchestra). The general music experience has been described as the “tree” of music education, with instrumental music and choral music serving as “branches” (Bundy & Hughes, 1990, p. 29). When students branch into the secondary ensemble, they may be new to playing an instrument or singing in a choir, but they are not new to music. A large number of American public school students experience elementary music education of some variety (U.S. Department of Education, 2012), and further, they have likely spent countless hours listening to music both inside and outside the classroom (Roberts & Christenson, 2001). In these formative experiences, elementary music teachers may use specific methods or approaches to interacting with music, such as Dalcroze, Kodály, and Orff-Schulwerk or combinations of those and other methods, that include systems for reading music, listening, singing, and moving. These general music systems should be transferred from the elementary classroom into the secondary ensemble, where students can maintain what they have already learned and build on these foundational experiences as they develop (Burnsed & Fiocca, 1990; Conway, 2003).

As students move from general music into a secondary ensemble, teachers begin to emphasize individual vocal or instrumental pedagogy, reading and performing music notation from parts or octavos, and the execution skills for group performance. The ways that students have interacted with music in the past do not need to be abandoned in this transition; in fact, some minor modifications in activity and scale can make many general music activities viable and productive in the ensemble setting. The focus can be placed on the integration of general music behaviors (e.g., listening, moving, or singing) to enhance instruction and facilitate performance goals, in contrast to the typical general music experience of these behaviors, where they serve as the primary goals of instruction.

Listening

Listening is a practice that is fundamental to the experience of music. Indeed, we are all “hardwired” for the act of listening, so it can serve as the most common access point for music experience over a person’s lifetime (Bowman, 2005). David Elliott (2005) has expressed the view that musicianship and “listenership” are two sides of the same coin:

Practically speaking, I suggest that achieving the aims of music education depends on developing the musicianship and listenership of all music students, through engaging students in performing-and-listening, improvising-and-listening, composing-and-listening, arranging-and-listening, conducting-and-listening, and listening to recordings and live performances. I emphasize that music making of all kinds—and, of course, the rich kind of music listening required to make music well—should be at the center of the music curriculum. (p. 7)

While the general music curriculum regularly includes listening activities, listening may be relegated to a less prominent place in the secondary ensemble curriculum, used primarily or only for performance preparation. However, performance goals could be enhanced through meaningful integration of listening, used to enhance and develop individual musicianship and skills.

Cutietta and Stauffer (2005) separate listeners into two types—“inside listeners” and “outside listeners” (pp. 124–125). An outside listener is functioning from a place of observation, not actively making music while listening. This is the type of listening many may associate with general music classes, where students are asked to listen to classical works or other performances in a nonparticipatory way (or with simple directed listening activity). In contrast, an inside listener is where the listener and the music-maker are the same person. Examples of inside listening include students listening to themselves as performers, listening to a group performance in which they are participating, listening to music that they created themselves, or serving as a conductor or group leader listening to an ensemble. Listening is embedded in performing for the inside listener. As secondary ensemble directors, there are ways we can use music listening to develop both the inside and outside listener in our students to directly support performance goals.

Inside Listening

Activity 1: I Play/Sing, You Play/Sing

In this activity, teachers ask individual students to directly imitate their performance on a small segment of music. In responding to the teacher’s model (with no verbal information), students are required to use their listening skills to reproduce the teacher’s tone, fluidity, and nuance. It can take several repetitions by the individual student to approximate the teacher’s performance, and the other students can participate by affirming when they feel the student has achieved a high level of replication. This activity can serve as a warm-up or as a rehearsal technique for a small section of a music selection and can be extended by having students match each other, evolving into matching tone and performance as well as matching pitch. Similarly, passing a pitch around the room from student to student is a commonly used technique in wind band instruction and can serve to allow students to hear any differences in tone, pitch, or volume/air use from student to student, promoting a uniform sound across the ensemble. These types of aural skill-development activities can open students to interacting with music in ways similar to those demonstrated by musicians in informal learning settings. Green (2002) explored the informal learning practices used by musicians in the popular music world, describing “purposive listening” as a deep listening engaged in by musicians for a particular goal–to use the information once the listening is over (p. 7). Such purposive listening can allow students at a very early developmental stage to begin discern and imitate the sound qualities and stylistic features that are incapable of being conveyed through notation (Green, 2008).

Activity 2: Theme and Variation

To encourage aural learning, teachers can have the class play or sing a small section of music (e.g., a line from a method book or sight-singing folio), then listen to the teacher perform the same section with a change or variation. Students can be asked to identify the change, to explain what and how the music changed, and then be asked to reproduce the change in their own performance. Changes can be simple at first, then can become more complex. Over time, students can be used as the models, improvising their own creative variations to a melodic excerpt.

Outside Listening

While ensemble directors often use recordings of works students are preparing as a form of inspiration and modeling, the use of recorded music can be used for a wider variety of purpose. As an outside listener activity, students can be asked to listen to recordings that serve as a vehicle for transfer of style elements (e.g., jazz style), genre (e.g., march or art song), or individual tone quality or ensemble sound. Outside listening activities can also be used to make connections between the music students choose to listen to and the music being taught and/or performed in school settings.

Activity 3: What’s on Your Playlist?

Students can be assigned a day to play a 2-minute (school-appropriate) segment of music that is on their personal playlist. That music selection can be used to encourage transfers on form, style, rhythmic content, lyric interpretation, and other music elements. Teachers and student can come to understand each other’s music preferences, and can demonstrate valuing all music styles as they discuss common music elements and points of departure. Students may become more open to music styles traditionally performed in the ensemble setting if their personally preferred music is likewise treated with respect. The teacher may also use this time to play something from their own music collection, giving students a window into their personal music life outside of the classroom. Consider making a playlist to share with your students using one or more common streaming services such as Spotify or Apple Music, including your favorite pieces of music of varied genres. Teachers may find their students spending personal time listening to these collections, increasing familiarity via repeated listening, which is typically needed to form a music preference (Finnäs, 1989).

Activity 4: Aspirational Listening

While it is always beneficial to provide students with professional recordings as models, it may be beneficial to also provide recorded models of students or ensembles that are similar to their own ensemble. By seeing and hearing an outstanding group that is similar in age and experience, students may be more motivated and have a stronger sense of self-efficacy for achieving great music performance than when hearing professional ensembles (usually adult). It is easier than ever to find recordings of ensembles of all ages and abilities. Some ensembles that may inspire young bands include some Japanese bands, where elementary age students are performing advanced literature (see Narashinodai Daiichi elementary school band at www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAfy5e6uXs8, or other similar videos). Children’s choir videos that show students of their own age performing may be inspirational to young choral ensembles (see One Voice Children’s Choir, www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jAtB_UBWh0, and Texas Boys Choir, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1TGlT9vqKs).

Moving

Music and movement have traditionally come together in the art form of dance, but can also be combined as a valuable tool for helping students connect with music in the secondary ensemble. With the progressive education movement that embraced the role of movement in child development in the first half of the 20th century, the principles of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze found a place in the music curriculum as a tool to develop the ability to discriminate qualities and features of the music itself through rhythmic movement (Campbell, 1991). Dalcroze Eurhythmics was promoted as a preinstrumental experience that would transfer to the learning of instruments later in students’ development. However, such movement activities are not often included in instruction for ensembles. Likewise, the Orff-Schulwerk pedagogy artfully combines music and movement at the elementary level, yet these movement activities are similarly absent from the secondary ensemble experience. Ensemble teachers may perceive barriers to participation in movement activities, such as lack of as classroom space (large classes and equipment), cumbersome materials (instruments, binders/folios, stands, etc.), or student or teacher reluctance to participate in these activities.

Furthermore, in the secondary ensemble, there is often a shift from the goal of experiencing music to the goal of understanding music and performance, with an emphasis on such activities as decoding notation, defining and explaining music terms and symbols, and articulating and demonstrating correct pedagogy for performance instrumentally and vocally. While music cognition and understanding are important, experiencing music through the whole body and using all the senses to perceive and interpret music information is also vital and can provide students with a more complete way to connect with the music they hear and perform (Hibbard, 2013). By allowing the body to experience movement that is a reflection of the music, the student is able to begin to integrate the mind and heart with their physicality, which ultimately can lead to an ability to find their expressive voice as an instrumentalist or singer. Hibbard (2013) calls this mind-body connection “kinesthesia” or “body knowing” (p. 52). Emile Jaques-Dalcroze suggested that the principal aim of his Eurhythmics course was “to enable pupils, at the end of their course to say, not ‘I know,” but ‘I have experienced’” (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921, p. 119). This is a worthy goal that can be achieved in the secondary ensemble through a range of activities that can be included as a part of instruction.

Incorporating movement activities, especially in the instrumental setting, may require directors to take somewhat of a nontraditional approach to rehearsal. Some techniques for enfolding movement into the rehearsal format include starting with movement as a physical warm-up (many choral ensembles already take this approach), using movement as a bell-ringer activity that begins even before class officially starts, or using movement as a break between performance activities with structured down time as transition from sitting or risers to moving. Students who are reluctant to participate at first can be encouraged through small tasks, imitating before being asked to create their own movements, and encouragement. Like any behavior, we ask our students to perform, movement will become a natural part of the music experience if incorporated and reinforced consistently.

Rhythm and Movement

Teachers engage in many activities designed to promote rhythmic understanding. While decoding notation is part of this process, experiencing rhythm, beat, and flow kinesthetically can also be a valuable part of becoming rhythmic (Rohwer, 1998). Initial rhythm movement activities can involve simply finding the beat in a variety of music examples using the body. While clapping or tapping or other small movements are traditional activities used in teaching rhythm, research shows the largest benefits to be gained from large motor movement that “travel[es] through space” as opposed to small motor movement by students in chairs or using only hand movement (Ferguson, 2005, p. 25).

Rudolf Laban (1879–1958), dance educator, defined movement in four elements—flow, weight, space, and time and their combinations. These valuable distinctions are used in a variety of settings (music and nonmusic) to document and define movement, and are useful in helping delineate activities of value in developing body awareness in relationship to music performance (Broughton & Stevens, 2012; Conway, Marshall, & Hartz, 2014). There are a number of activities related to these distinctions that can help students make a whole-body connection to music.

Activity 1: Flow Breathing

The process of finding the beat with the body can begin with breathing. Teachers can start by asking students to breathe in and out for a determined number of counts in the style of a yoga breath (Hibbard, 2013). By asking students to evenly space their breath across a number of counts, the rhythmic concept of flow, where fluidity of movement is the goal, can be established (Broughton & Stevens, 2012; Conway et al, 2014). Students can then be asked to synchronize their breath (in and out) to elements of music examples—to a phrase, melody, or rhythmic figure. This activity has obvious transfers to performance with breathing and use of air, but also establishes the concept of phrasing and direction based on the music selected and the breathing goals established. While recorded music (student-selected popular music, jazz, or minimalist music examples) can be very effective, teachers can also divide the class into groups, having some students breathe, while others play or sing. Once students are synchronizing the breath to the music, they can add arm movement or simple (in place) body motion to represent what they hear. These movements may start small, but can progress to large motor gestures representing the expressive content and phrasing in the music.

Weight

Weight is an important concept in music making. Weight, or emphasis, is used in creating elements of phrasing, style, articulation, and in interpretation of lyrics, and is a concept that can be experienced kinesthetically through movement (Conway et al., 2014). Students can begin to understand the experience of weight through activities such as shifting their own weight from side to side, and through various types of large motor movements including heavy and light stepping, gentle and forceful arm movement, and vertical and horizontal arm and leg movement. Weight can be further explored through bending the knees (pliés) and then stretching upward with the body. “Swing and sway” activities can allow students to shift their weight from side to side or from up to down in response to the movement of the music (Hibbard, 2013, p. 49). Students can also work in pairs or small groups, with one student beginning a movement activity, and the other student(s) mirroring their activity. This type of partnering or small group work can promote a sense of connectedness and may reduce self-consciousness that might occur if students are asked to create movement independently.

Activity 2: Hammer and Paint

Have students create a vertical hammering motion with both arms (as if they were holding a hammer in each hand, hammering a nail with an up/down motion). Then have students trade their hammer for a paintbrush, painting the wall in an up/down motion. Change the activity to a horizontal motion, hammering outward horizontally to the left and right, respectively, then painting the wall horizontally. The motion approximates the weights of strong and gentle, which can then be transferred to marcato and legato styles of music performance. These motions can further be transferred to conducting activities for students.

Shape

Laban further explored movement through the concept of shape, defined as the movement of the body in space (Broughton & Stevens, 2012). Shape-related movement allows students to begin to experience music as having direction (vertical, horizontal, and sagittal) and magnitude, and these movements can easily transfer to conducting gestures. Conducting is an activity that is central to the ensemble setting, and students are often eager to learn more about conducting gesture. Therefore, students can be engaged in movement activity without even realizing it when it is framed as a conducting lesson.

Activity 3: Expressive Shape

Students can be asked to represent the music they hear through expressive gesture that approximates left-hand conducting. One way to begin is by giving them specific assignments in how to represent the music. For example, students can be asked to use their arms and/or arms and upper body to show the music rising or falling (vertical plane) on 1 day, advancing or retreating (sagittal plane) on another day, and expanding or contracting (horizontal plane) on another (Broughton & Stevens, 2012). Over time, students can then be asked to combine all three gestural choices to represent what they hear in the music. This activity also addresses phrasing, flow, and expressive content of the music. These gestures can easily be transferred to the left-hand as expressive conducting gesture, later to be combined or alternating with beat pattern in the right hand.

Locomotion

Locomotion refers to the movement forward in space and time and is key for developing awareness of tempo and music space—the distance between music elements. Locomotion begins with simple walking to music, developing into a more expressive representation of style (incorporating weight and flow) over time (Hibbard, 2013). The elasticity of time is a difficult concept to master in music making, and locomotion can be used as a tool to experience the relationship between space and time in a physical sense (Conway et al., 2014).

Activity 4: Motion and Stillness

Have students find a space where they can move forward four to five steps (arm’s length apart). Provide a music sample (known or unknown to students) and ask them to move forward in their space during a prescribed segment of the music, and then to practice stillness on another prescribed section of the music. For example, in a popular song, students could move forward on verses and stand still on the chorus. During times of stillness, ask students to close their eyes and find their breath to the music. This activity promotes the concept of movement in relationship to the form and content of the music as well as the concept of movement and stillness in the music itself. Just as a marching band designer finds inspiration to have the ensemble move in some parts of the music and stand still in others, students can then be asked to find movement and stillness in the music themselves. This can be decided in a group discussion or can be interpreted individually by students in their personal movements. Furthermore, students can be asked to interpret whether the music is moving forward or backward or standing still, representing this through movement. If space is limited, students can “locomotor” in place through marching (in an appropriate stepping style). The concept of stillness and movement can still be achieved in place (although the space aspect is compromised).

Singing

Singing is a fundamental music activity that can be performed by almost everyone and requires no extra equipment. Singing is frequently the backbone of the general music program, allowing students to come to the secondary ensemble with a great deal of experience in singing. Students who choose to continue in a choral class will continue to sing and probably have developed some sense of self-esteem on their singing voice (particularly if ensembles are elective classes, as they often are at the secondary level). Conversely, students who choose to pursue an instrumental ensemble such as band or orchestra may lack confidence in their ability to sing (for a variety of reasons, including simple disuse) and may need encouragement if singing is to continue into the secondary level. Despite the general acceptance of singing as an effective instructional technique (Comelek, 1985; Wolbers, 2002), some instrumental teachers may express reluctance to incorporate singing in the curriculum due to personal insecurities about singing or fears that students will respond negatively to the request to sing (Robinson, 1996).

There are many benefits in continuing to sing in the secondary instrumental ensemble. Singing is a primary way of experiencing music and students must physically produce the pitch when they sing. When playing an instrument, there is a possibility that some students will produce the sounds through pushing the correct valves, keys, or strings, while remaining cognitively disconnected from the sound they are producing. By eliminating the instrument that is in between the student and the music production process, it may be possible to help students hear the music in their head (audiate) rather than relying on the mechanics of the instrument alone to produce the correct sound. It is suggested that instrumental students who are audiating music are unconsciously singing silently, using the instrument as an extension of the music processing that is occurring internally (Gordon, 2007). This process is sometimes referred to as “sing[ing] through the instrument” (Dalby, 1999, p. 22) and is suggested as a means to improve intonation and accuracy, as students are using the internal music stimulus as a measure of comparison for performance of the music goal (Wolbers, 2002).

There are a number of valuable singing activities that can help instrumental students develop confidence in singing. The first and best resource for instrumental teachers is their school’s choral teacher, who can provide ideas and serve as a guest clinician for the ensemble. The choral teacher will have resources and skills to get students comfortable making sounds and producing a healthy vocal tone right away. If students are asked to sing early in the instrumental experience, then singing will be a natural part of ensemble instruction. By having a sing-before-play routine in beginning band, students will naturally become comfortable with singing in the band setting and the repetition will help them develop their individual skill as a singer. By singing note names with their fingerings (show and sing instead of show and tell), students gain the practice and repetition needed to learn the fingerings, and also gain the benefit singing provides in enhancing audiation and music connection.

Activity 1: Tall Humming

Tall humming can serve to help students who may be uncomfortable with singing as a transition into vocal production. Begin with unison melodies and lines from the method book. Give students a starting pitch and ask them to quietly hum the melody (always sing/hum in the key in which students will eventually play). Start with the large group and move to hearing sections and individuals. Next, ask students to hum with a tall inside to their mouth (imagine an Oreo cookie sideways in the mouth). The purpose of this activity is to get students comfortable producing the correct pitch, with the tall shape in the mouth serving as a transition to get the feel of an open mouth before students are asked to open their lips and produce a singing tone. Once students are comfortable with tall humming, transition to singing on an open vowel, starting the sound with the “m” consonant, and producing the “ah” vowel (have students say “haaaaa” and model to get the correct vowel sound).

Activity 2: Interval Singing

To initiate singing in intervals, divide the ensemble in half and use the left and right hands to communicate with each side of the ensemble. Indicate a note of the scale using your fingers, and have students play or sing the note represented (i.e., hold up first finger, students play the first note of the designated scale). Start in unison with both halves; after students are comfortable, transition to showing each half of the group a different note. An upright hand represents notes one to five, a sideways hand represents notes six to eight. You can indicate the lowering of the note by one half step by holding the fingers upside down (i.e., in the key of Bb, D becomes Db when you hold the three upside down). By showing each half of the band a different note, intervals can be created. Students can then sing the notes shown on each hand. At first, you may want to have a student from each half of the room play the notes you are showing as a guide (usually a woodwind instrument approximates singing range best), but that support can be faded over time. By singing the intervals, students can develop an awareness of pitch, both in unison and interval, and can develop their sense of note relationships within the scale. This interval activity may also be beneficial to choral students for simple part singing and learning the concept of interval.

Activity 3: Part Singing

Part singing can be a challenge for students. Instrumental teachers sometimes make the mistake of asking students to sing their part in the instrumental music, not realizing that the notes may not be in students’ vocal range, that there may be octave confusion based on the instrumental part and the voice part of the student, and that the sheer difficulty of singing a part independently in a group where there are many parts represented makes success difficult to achieve. Instead, part singing must begin simply and progress slowly from one to two parts, then to three parts if possible. By transcribing melodic lines and accompaniment parts for all students from the music, everyone can participate in singing together on one part, then two parts or more as confidence develops. Teachers can identify important melodic or rhythmic motives in the performance literature and use solfège, rhythm syllables, or neutral syllables to sing the patterns. Then, they can ask students to find examples of the targeted pattern in their parts. By using these types of simplification techniques, students can use their voices to help them internalize the sounds of the ensemble and their contribution to it.

Conclusion

Development and reinforcement of basic musicianship begins in the elementary general music class. In ideal situations, students will enter the ensemble setting after having had 4 or 5 years of quality elementary general music instruction (Conway, 2003) and will have solidly established audiation and rhythmic skills, demonstrating a readiness for the secondary ensemble. Though ensembles necessarily have a more specialized focus than the general music class, the strategies and ways of interacting with music that have been successful teaching tools in preparing students need not be abandoned. A variety of approaches can be used to engage with music, alongside the traditional modes of cognition and performance, that are equally valuable and worthy of time. Listening, moving, and singing are primary ways of experiencing music at all ages, enhancing performance, understanding, and (perhaps most importantly) enjoyment in music making in the secondary ensemble. Help your students make the most of their ensemble experience by exposing them to the whole of music in your classroom!

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Virginia Wayman Davis

Author Biographies

Laura Singletary is assistant professor of Music Education at Texas Christian University. Her interests include beginning band instruction and time use and methods in the secondary ensemble setting.

Kimberly VanWeelden is professor of Music Education at Florida State University, is a choral and secondary general music specialist with emphases in working with children with disabilities and older adults.

Virginia Wayman Davis is professor of Music Education at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. Her interests include secondary general music, popular music education, and meaningful music education practices.

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