Abstract
The second edition of Orcher’s text Conducting Research: Social and Behavioral Science Methods provides the undergraduate researcher with instruction on how to properly develop a comprehensive and effective research proposal. Unlike most research methods texts, this book is arranged in a nonlinear fashion, as the author integrates a discussion of research processes with information regarding associated concepts. This is contrary to the approach of most authors, in which the reader is typically introduced to research methods, followed by specific instruction regarding how to complete each method. According to the introduction to the text, the author’s purpose is to prepare students to conduct their first empirical research studies via a presentation of foundational information and concrete advice. This objective is easily achieved across its 25 chapters.
Chapter 1 introduces and defines research as a process of “systematically collecting and interpreting data” (p. 3). It differentiates between library and empirical research, clarifying that library research is based on others’ observations, whereas empirical research relies on new observations, whether overt or indirect. The author emphasizes that some of the most rich and viable research questions are based on everyday observations, and he suggests that researchers’ curiosity regarding observed behavior can serve as a catalyst to the pursuit of knowledge. Another source of research topics is the examination of theories, which Orcher defines as “statements of principles that help explain why a wide array of behaviors is exhibited…and associated” (p. 4). The reader is instructed to start with a broad research question and then refine it as knowledge regarding the general topic emerges. While personal needs serve as one viable source for developing a research study, one may also use published research as a source of topics, playing particular attention to past researchers’ identification of previous studies’ limitations and recommendations for future inquiry. No matter the impetus for one’s research question, Orcher stresses that the researcher must beware of the availability of participants, ethical considerations, and potential audience when refining his or her main research questions. Indeed, the researcher should be open to further narrowing or even changing his or her initial research topic as he or she continues to engage in the research process.
Chapter 2, “Locating Literature and Refining a Research Topic,” provides a general overview of how to access appropriate scholarly literature to narrow down a research topic or set forth a theoretical foundation for one’s study. Several databases—including ERIC, PsyARTICLES, PsycINFO, CSA Sociological Abstracts, Social Work Abstracts, and Google Scholar—are introduced to the reader, as is how to properly employ Boolean operators to narrow or widen a search. The author instructs the reader to make notes of the search process and to review both positive and negative studies, paying particular attention to the most recent studies, which are likely to reflect the most current knowledge on the subject.
Chapter 3, “Preparing a Literature Review,” advises the reader on how to effectively construct a literature review, which will eventually serve as the foundation for the research proposal by both establishing a need for the proposed study and giving a context to it. The reader is instructed to first prepare a table that provides an overview of all the articles found in the initial literature research. By examining the type of sample, demographics of the participants, measurement strategies, results, and significant features across studies, the researcher can note any strengths or weaknesses that could affect the proposed study. After identifying these initial patterns, the researcher next constructs a critical review of the available research that (a) identifies statistics that establish the importance of the topic, (b) presents critical conceptual definitions associated with the broader topic, (c) provides a brief history of the topic, (d) introduces elements of past studies, including explanations of participants, methodologies, noted results, and validity of the findings, (e) summarizes the results of findings across studies, and (f) highlights current gaps in the knowledge of the topic. Orcher emphasizes the fact that there should be a distinct connection between the literature review, the research question, the stated purpose of the proposed study, and hypotheses associated with the study. The reader is provided with several examples (in an appendix) of a well-developed literature review.
Chapters 4 and 5 stress the need for clarity in a research proposal, with appropriate referencing and explicit descriptions of one’s intended purpose. Chapter 4 provides condensed instructions on how to properly employ American Psychological Association and American Sociological Association citation and reference styles. While this chapter fails to discuss the major stylistic components associated with these formats, it does provide information about the basic elements of citations and references and produces a number of examples of each for the reader to mirror. A brief overview of reference management software is also provided. Chapter 5 begins by clarifying that “Research is conducted in order to test a research hypothesis, achieve a purpose, or answer a question” (p. 43). The reader is informed that a hypothesis statement should identify the specific variables involved in the study and should be based on observations rather than values. If no specific prediction regarding the outcomes of a study is provided, the researcher is prompted to clarify the study’s purpose, which includes a declarative statement identifying the variables of interest. Alternatively, the reader is advised that he or she may simply provide his or her well-developed research questions.
Chapter 6, “Selecting a Research Approach,” provides a general introduction of the differences between quantitative and qualitative research. Subsequent chapters in the book (Chapters 14–26) provide some of the specific details associated with each. Chapter 6 begins by clarifying that experimental research seeks to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables, whereas nonexperimental research is used to explore causality in the absence of the direct treatment of participants. Readers are introduced to several major types of nonexperimental research, including causal-comparative research, surveys, correlational studies, and content analysis. The author concludes the chapter by indicating that some research questions are naturally aligned with one methodology over the other and that the choice between quantitative and qualitative methods comes down to whether one is seeking breadth or depth of data.
Following this consideration of what research approach may be most appropriate to one’s topic, Chapters 7–9 encourage the reader to look ahead in the research process when considering participant selection, instrumentation, and methods of analysis, each of which is covered in additional detail in Chapters 12–19. Specifically, Chapter 7 encourages the reader to be thoughtful when determining the number of participants necessary for reliable results, emphasizing that it is imperative to select participants likely to represent the population studied. The purpose and processes associated with various sampling methods—random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience sampling, and purposive sampling—are introduced, and these strategies are reviewed in additional detail in Chapters 12 and 13.
Orcher also stresses the importance of utilizing valid and reliable instrumentation (Chapter 8), and the principles associated with validity and reliability as they are associated with measurement are examined in Chapters 14–16. Chapter 9 presents the basic levels of quantitative research, including an explanation of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data, highlighting that each type of data dictates a separate type of statistical analysis. A detailed discussion of this is provided later in the text (Chapters 17–19 and 26). Similarly, the author discusses the processes associated with qualitative analysis in Chapter 20. Chapters 21–25 are dedicated to the introduction of common issues associated with both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, including the use of surveys, the Hawthorne effect, selection bias, obtrusiveness of measurements, and maturation, among other factors.
The reader is initially prompted to begin constructing a preliminary proposal in Chapter 11, and the final section of the book (G) provides the reader with explicit instruction on how to draft a well-developed research report. Also included in the text are four appendices, including an explanation of specialized topics, such as correlation coefficients, the use of focus groups in qualitative research, and how to complete program evaluations. Additional topics included in the appendices include a review of ethical issues in conducting research and several sample literature reviews.
A major strength of this text is Orcher’s emphasis on both qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. He highlights the fact that each methodology has its strengths and contributes to the social sciences in a manner that the other cannot. The text is written in a simple manner, which allows students and novice researchers to understand the basic concepts behind reliable and valid research. The author also provides the reader with a well-balanced combination of explanation and examples, which demonstrates how such knowledge is applied in the real world.
The book is set up in a manner that encourages the reader’s active engagement with the material. In addition to utilizing bulleted lists, charts, and other formatting to make the content easy to follow, the author presents the reader with quizzes at the conclusion of each chapter to confirm his or her understanding of the materials presented. Also of significance is the presentation of the Notes pages throughout the text, which encourage the reader to document his or her thoughts regarding the materials while working through a chapter. Orcher makes effective use of footnotes as well, providing the reader with additional information, which may facilitate mastery of each chapter’s concepts.
The text is well-researched, presenting information from a number of foundational resources, which are repackaged in a manner more palatable to undergraduate students. It makes use of language that is easily understandable and provides numerous detailed real-world examples that illustrate concepts. While uncomplicated in its presentation, Orcher’s text remains incredibly thorough, providing undergraduate students pursuing the social sciences with a detailed primer for research methodology.