Measuring Personal Growth of New Grandparents

Abstract

Objective:

Two studies examined the validity of using the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) to assess growth following the transition to grandparenthood as an aid for social workers seeking to promote strengths-based interventions for this population.

Method:

In Study 1 (n = 210 grandparent/offspring pairs), first-time grandparents’ spontaneous answers to a qualitative open-ended question regarding changes following the birth of their first grandchild were compared to their responses to the PTGI. To corroborate these responses, the PTGI was also completed by the grandparent’s offspring. Additionally, the study examined the applicability of the five-factor structure of the PTGI to the population of first-time grandparents. In Study 2 (n = 202 couples), grandparents’ PTGI responses were compared with reports of their growth furnished by their spouses.

Findings and conclusions:

The PTGI can indeed be considered an effective instrument for measuring growth following the transition to grandparenthood and may therefore be used in designing strengths-based social work practices.

Keywords

growth grandparents life transitions measurement validation strengths perspective

Major life transitions are inevitably stressful, but may also be an opportunity for personal development, particularly due to the increased self-reflection typical of such periods (Bauer & McAdams, 2004). Recognition of this potential is a basic premise of the social work strengths perspective, which focuses on the potentials, abilities, and capacities of individuals rather than on their limits (Grant & Cadell, 2009). It also joins the emerging approach of positive psychology. This approach has generated considerable theoretical and practical discussion in an attempt to identify factors that may contribute to positive outcomes, including a sense of well-being, life satisfaction, and more recently—personal growth (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003; Zoellner & Maercker, 2006). This study was conducted in view of the understanding that in order to design effective social work practice in the context of life transitions, and to encourage personal development, one of our urgent tasks is to provide effective measures to enable the design and evaluation of research-supported practices which may inform professionals’ fieldwork.

For over two decades, research has highlighted the potential to experience positive outcomes following a variety of stressful life events. Numerous studies have used the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) to measure this experience. The PTGI, designed to assess positive changes resulting from adversity, was developed by Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) based on the literature on responses to trauma and interviews with individuals dealing with crises or stressors, such as a physical handicap or the death of a child (Cann et al., 2010). Its basic premise is that the struggle with highly challenging life circumstances can lead to the experience of significant positive change, that is, to posttraumatic growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1995). Three broad areas of growth are generally reported following stressful events: enhanced interpersonal relationships and greater appreciation of others; changes in self-perception, in the direction of increased resilience and maturity; and reexamination of life philosophy and the setting of new priorities (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). Since its introduction, the PTGI has been employed to examine a wide range of populations in diverse situations (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 2006), such as terror attacks, bereavement, and life-threatening disease (Hefferon, Grealy, & Mutrie, 2009; Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006; Zoellner & Maercker, 2006). Moreover, the 21-item scale has been subjected to a variety of evaluations of its validity, reliability, and factor structure (Taku, Cann, Calhoun, & Tedeschi, 2008). Studies have found it to have high internal consistency and test–retest reliabilities (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), as well as good validity, evidenced by corroboration of responses to the inventory by others close to the person reporting growth (Shakespeare-Finch & Enders, 2008; Weiss, 2002). In addition, its five-factor structure—new possibilities, relating to others, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life—has been confirmed in many different populations (e.g., Taku et al., 2008).

Although the PTGI was originally aimed at assessing positive change following adverse events, the authors have since clarified that posttraumatic growth is triggered by a challenge to and reexamination of core beliefs, and not just a bad experience per se (Tedeschi, Calhoun, & Cann, 2007, p. 396). Researchers have therefore begun to use this tool to assess the response to challenging life events that are less traumatic and more mundane, such as academic studies (Anderson & Lopez-Baez, 2008), romantic breakups (Tashiro & Frazier, 2003), work-related stress (Paton, 2005), and more recently, issues relating to parenthood, such as parenting preterm babies (Spielman & Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2009; Taubman – Ben-Ari & Spielman, 2014) or the transition to motherhood (Sawyer & Ayers, 2009; Taubman – Ben-Ari, Ben Shlomo, Sivan, & Dolizki, 2009). Consequently, the term “posttraumatic growth” is now often replaced by “personal growth,” “psychological growth,” or simply “growth.” Anderson and Lopez-Baez (2008), for example, claim that the PTGI can be used as a general measure of growth beyond the posttraumatic applications for which it was specifically developed. Their study of undergraduate students (2008) showed that the participants reported growth and that their PTGI scores were within the range found by studies that had examined the response to trauma, although they were more homogenous than those reported by the previous investigations. The study also demonstrated that the substantial growth can be reported for periods as brief as a single semester, indicating that signs of growth can be detected shortly after the relevant life event.

Recent investigations have employed the PTGI to assess the experience of new grandparents (e.g., Taubman – Ben-Ari, Findler, & Ben Shlomo, 2012, 2013) and indicate that this life transition can also elicit growth. Although these studies provide further evidence that growth is not exclusive to traumatic life events and can also be experienced in normative life transitions, such as becoming a grandparent, they did not establish the validity of the PTGI as a suitable instrument for measuring growth following the transition to grandparenthood. The current series of studies specifically addresses this issue, with the hope of enabling the use of this tool within strengths-based interventions for this population. With this aim in mind, three types of procedures were conducted in two complementary studies. First, first-time grandmothers and grandfathers were asked to answer an open-ended question about changes following the birth of their first grandchild. Their responses were subjected to content analysis, and the themes that emerged were compared to the items on the PTGI. Second, following previous research on trauma survivors (Shakespeare-Finch & Enders, 2008; Weiss, 2002) and mothers (Taubman – Ben-Ari, Findler, & Sharon, 2011), the relationship between the level of growth reported by new grandparents and their growth as perceived by their own children (Study 1) or their spouse (Study 2) was examined. The use of external observers to corroborate the process of growth was aimed at providing convergent validity of the PTGI, rather than relying solely on self-reports. Finally, an attempt was made to replicate the five growth dimensions of the PTGI in the sample of new grandparents.

Study 1

Method

Participants and Procedure

This study was part of a large-scale investigation of the transitions to parenthood and grandparenthood (A previously published article on the relationship between mothers’ and grandmothers’ personal growth and a range of variables employed another subsample drawn from the large-scale study. It did not present the findings indicated in this article, Taubman – Ben-Ari, Ben Shlomo, & Findler, 2012). Following review and approval of the study protocol by the School of Social Work Institutional Review Board, a purposive convenience sample was gathered by a group of research assistants. The assistants came from all over Israel, thus facilitating recruitment of a large, diverse, heterogeneous convenience sample. They were instructed to look in their neighborhoods for first-time parents, whose own parents had also become grandparents for the first time, making sure to include both genders. The goals of the study were explained, and participants were asked for their consent to complete a set of questionnaires, as well as permission to approach the grandparents with the same request. They were promised full confidentiality. A total of 224 pairs of new grandparents and their offspring gave their informed consent to participate. Of these, 210 completed the full set of questionnaires and were included in the study.

The final sample of grandparents consisted of 142 women, aged 43–80 (M = 53.69, SD = 5.65), and 68 men, aged 44–65 (M = 54.26, SD = 4.54). Grandchildren’s age was 6–24 months (M = 12.29, SD = 7.14). The majority of the grandparents (88%) were married at the time of the study. In terms of education, 2.9% had completed elementary school, 14.8% had a high school diploma, 23.8% had postsecondary education, and the remaining 58.5% held an academic degree. Most of the grandparents had a full-time (44.8%) or a part-time (12.9%) job, most reported on good (45.2%) or very good (43.8%) health, and about half (51.4%) described their economic status as average. The sample of parents consisted of 143 women (42 daughters of the grandfathers and 101 daughters of the grandmothers), aged 20–37 (M = 27.02, SD = 4.05), and 67 men (26 sons of the grandfathers and 41 sons of the grandmothers), aged 20–53 (M = 28.49, SD = 5.37).

Instruments

Open-ended question

Based on a previous study on the transition to motherhood (Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2011), first-time grandparents were asked to respond to a qualitative question which was designed in order to explore the phenomenon: “People who become grandparents speak about various changes they experienced. Please think about yourself and write down changes that have occurred following the transition to grandparenthood.” All changes were content analyzed, but for the purposes of this study, only positive ones will be mentioned, to adhere to the essence of the PTGI, which only asks about positive changes.

PTGI

The 21-item self-report scale designed by Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996) relates to changes that have occurred in five dimensions, namely, new possibilities, relating to others, personal strengths, spirituality, and appreciation of life (e.g., “I learned a great deal about how wonderful people are” and “I am able to do better things with my life”). The scale was completed both by the grandparent reporting on changes he or she had experienced since the birth of their first grandchild and by their offspring reporting on the perceived changes in their mother or father. For each statement, participants were asked to indicate the degree to which the change had occurred. Responses were marked on a 6-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (I/He/She did not experience this change) to 5 (I/He/She experienced this change to a very great degree). The PTGI has previously demonstrated both good internal reliability (.90) and test–retest reliability (.71) over a 2-month period (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). Each participant was thus assigned a personal growth score, and their offspring’s perceived growth score, computed by averaging responses on all items, as well as specific scores for each of the five factors, calculated in a similar manner. In all cases, scores range from 0 to 5, with higher scores indicating greater growth.

A Demographic Questionnaire was used to obtain data regarding the age, education, health, and economic status of the grandparents.

Results

Comparison of Spontaneous Responses With PTGI Items

Content analysis of the qualitative data was conducted according to the phenomenological method principles using the following steps: first, horizonalization of the content, followed by highlighting significant statements in order to explore the participants’ subjective experience. The second step was to develop clusters of meaning into major themes (Moustakas, 1994). The entire body of responses to the open-ended question was analyzed by two independent judges, who were not previously acquainted with the PTGI, and who evidenced a high degree of agreement (over 90%). In the next step, the qualitative themes that emerged were then compared to the five PTGI dimensions to see whether grandparents’ spontaneous responses were fully covered by the scale, and vice versa. Table 1 presents the PTGI dimensions and relevant example items alongside the compatible themes and one or two comments by the way of illustration.

Table 1.

PTGI Dimensions, Sample Items, and Corresponding Content Analysis Themes With Sample Comments.

PTGI Factors	Sample PTGI Items	Corresponding Content Analysis Themes	Sample Comments—Grandfathers	Sample Comments—Grandmothers
New possibilities	• I changed my priorities about what is important in life • I developed new interests • New opportunities are available which wouldn’t have been otherwise • I am more likely to try to change things which need changing	Change in priorities New interests Wider range of emotions New direction to life Sense of vitality and youthfulness Sense of continuity which gives meaning to life Need for self-improvement to be a positive influence on grandchild Opportunity to compensate for parenthood by being a better grandparent than parent	I have changed the priorities in my life I’m more willing to invest in my family rather than in my work My priorities have changed due to my desire to give my grandchildren what they want when necessary I feel younger and more alive I feel satisfied and content seeing that my family will have continuity	I have changed my priorities, with being a grandmother as a high priority My priorities have changed. I am less focused on my job and more on staying home and helping out I have a strong desire to learn more about parenthood and grandparenthood; I go to lectures, courses, films I have decided to take a yearlong course on infant massage so I can pamper my granddaughter Grandmotherhood has acquainted me with exciting new experiences I never knew existed. It’s very exciting experiences! I have a sense of going back in time, of feeling young and happy, and learning new modern child-rearing methods It tells me that I’ve moved forward in life, that I’m at a place where I should start having fun and fulfill my dreams and not just my routine commitments, and it’s because of my grandson that I realize I’m at a new stage in life It helped me open up to possibilities and actually discover a new world of how to care for my grandchild It enables me to make up for my parenting with my grandchild
Relating to others	• I have a greater sense of closeness to others • I put more effort into my relationships • I have more compassion for others	Improvement of relationships with family members and others Higher need for family members’ closeness Realization of importance of family Higher desire to help the child who has become a parent Greater sense of wanting and being able to give Finding out what a wonderful parent the child is	I feel more connected to my son, who has now given me a grandson My relationship with my granddaughter strengthens the relationship with my son and daughter-in-law I appreciate my family more, and invest in the relationships with my relatives and friends My relationship with my wife is stronger	Grandmotherhood has enriched my relationship with my daughter and son-in-law Taking care of my granddaughter has made me softer and more loving … it makes me want to give and hug her close … I’m giving her 100% and I’m getting it all back My relationship with my daughter has definitely improved I get along much better with my daughter now that she is a mother. We understand each other better I have this giant will to give without limit I understand now who is closest to me and who is important to me
Personal strength	• I have a greater feeling of self-reliance	Discovering new strengths Ability to face challenges Empowerment; discovery of inner powers and the ability to cope Stronger sense of responsibility	I feel I have greater responsibility for my family and my daughter’s family because she is a mother now and I am his grandfather and I have to help out I have the sense that my role is to protect and be responsible in general, and for the family in particular	I feel greater responsibility towards my granddaughter and my kids; I realize that I have another generation [to care for] My self-esteem is so much higher now
Spiritual change	• I have a stronger religious faith	—	—	—
Appreciation of life	• I have a greater appreciation for the value of my own life • I am able to do better things with my life	Learning what’s important in life Richer and more meaningful life	I feel that I smile more; I have a reason to wake up It makes my life more interesting and satisfying I have a sense of fullness and satisfaction	I feel loved, needed, and wanted The purpose and goal of my life has been enhanced Becoming a grandmother has affected my life positively: I’m more relaxed, patient, and serene I feel happier with myself, that I have accomplished the most significant task in life

As can be seen from Table 1, the themes elicited by grandparents’ responses to the open-ended question corresponded to all the PTGI factors, with the exception of spiritual change.

Reliability of the PTGI Factors for New Grandparents and Their Comparability to Scores in Other Studies

In this study, Cronbach’s α for the PTGI as a whole was .96 for both genders. Cronbach’s α was also calculated for each of the five factors and produced the following results (for grandfathers and grandmothers, respectively): .86, .82, for new possibilities; .92, .91, for relating to others; .85, .85, for personal strength; .87, .85, for spiritual change; and .90, .85, for appreciation of life. These measures are reasonably high, and are similar to, or even higher than, those found in other studies (e.g., Anderson & Lopez-Baez, 2008; Taku et al., 2008), attesting to the reliability of the PTGI for the population of new grandparents.

Mean scores for each of the dimensions, as well as the total growth score, were then calculated for the sample as a whole. The results can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2.

Means, Standard Deviations, t Scores (For Paired Samples), and Correlations Between Grandparents’ Self-Reports and Their Offspring’s Reports (Study 1).

	Grandparent’s Self-Report		Offspring’s Report on Their Parents
	M	SD	M	SD	t(209)	Cohen’s d	r
New possibilities	2.33	1.16	2.83	1.11	5.22***	.36	.26***
Relating to others	2.40	1.30	2.71	1.15	3.07**	.21	.29***
Personal strength	2.60	1.50	2.79	1.31	1.71	.12	.33***
Appreciation to life	2.81	1.39	2.95	1.18	1.33	.10	.35***
Spiritual change	2.00	1.67	1.96	1.51	0.35	.02	.44***
Personal growth (total score)	2.45	1.19	2.73	1.06	3.11**	.21	.32***

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

The scores presented in Table 2 are similar to those reported by other studies for a variety of different populations. For example, Anderson and Lopez-Baez (2008) administered the PTGI to a sample of 347 undergraduate students with a mean age of 21.23 (SD = 0.75), asking them to relate to the changes that occurred in their life in the course of the current semester. The authors report mean scores of 2.92 for new possibilities, 2.98 for relating to others, 3.01 for personal strength, 1.43 for spiritual change, and 3.07 for appreciation of life, along with a total growth score of 2.81. The same compatibility with previous studies emerges when total scores are compared. This sample yielded a total sum score of 51.16 (SD = 24.99), with scores of M = 13.90 (SD = 6.97), M = 14.30 (SD = 7.79), M = 7.73 (SD = 4.49), M = 4.34 (SD = 3.47), and M = 8.69 (SD = 4.31) for new possibilities, relating to others, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life, respectively. Using a sample of 926 adults of both genders ranging in age from 17 to 85 (M = 30.7, SD = 15.4), all of whom had experienced a traumatic event of some kind (e.g., death of a family member or close friend, serious medical problem), Taku, Cann, Calhoun, and Tedeschi (2008) report the following findings: mean total sum score, 53.04 (SD = 24.17); new possibilities, M = 11.92 (SD = 7.07); relating to others, M = 16.98 (SD = 8.99); personal strength, M = 11.10 (SD = 5.34); spiritual change, M = 4.34 (SD = 3.47); and appreciation of life, M = 8.69 (SD = 4.31). Similarly, Sawyer and Ayers (2009) examined 219 mothers aged 18–42 (M = 28.14, SD = 5.39) up to 36 months following childbirth, and found a total sum score of 58.81 (SD = 21.61); new possibilities, M = 13.76 (SD = 5.99); relating to others, M = 19.46 (SD = 8.45); personal strength, M = 12.14 (SD = 5.15); spiritual change, M = 2.54 (SD = 2.93); and appreciation of life, M = 10.91 (SD = 3.23). Thus, the PTGI scores found here following the transition to grandparenthood are comparable to those obtained from other samples following a traumatic experience or meaningful life event.

It is important to note that a study of adults in three age-groups (26–41, 42–54, 55 and over) who had survived cancer (Bellizzi, 2004) found that the oldest participants reported the least personal growth. In addition, people who experience traumatic events tend to report greater growth than those who do not (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). As the transition to grandparenthood is likely to occur relatively late in life and is a nontraumatic event, the growth scores found in this sample appear to be reasonable.

Corroborating Evidence for the PTGI

The t-tests for paired samples were conducted to examine the associations and differences between the self-reported growth of the grandparents and their growth as perceived by their offspring. The t-tests were performed on the total growth score, as well as on each of the five PTGI factors. The results are shown in Table 2.

As can be seen from Table 2, the reports of the new grandparents and their children were significantly, though moderately, correlated, so that the higher the growth experienced by the grandparent, the higher the growth reported by the offspring. The children reported somewhat higher growth than their parents, a finding particularly evident in the total growth score and on the dimensions of new possibilities and relating to others.

To conclude, Study 1 found adequate reliabilities for the PTGI on the whole and for its individual factors in a sample of new grandparents, and these measures were similar to those reported by previous studies for other populations. Second, the themes that emerged from content analysis of grandparents’ responses to an open-ended question regarding the changes in their life following the birth of their first grandchild corresponded to all the PTGI dimensions save for spiritual change. In addition, when compared with other studies, the growth scores obtained for this sample were in the acceptable range. Moreover, the study provided corroborating evidence of growth, indicating that grandparents’ growth was not only self-reported but also perceived by an external observer. Thus, Study 1 provides an initial demonstration that the PTGI can be used among new grandparents to assess the level of growth experienced following this life transition.

In order to confirm these findings, we decided to conduct a second study using another source to corroborate growth. We therefore replicated the procedure, employing a separate sample consisting of couples of grandparents, with the spouse as the external observer.

Study 2

Method

Participants and Procedure

This study was part of a large-scale investigation of the transitions of couples to grandparenthood (A previously published article on growth among grandparents was based on data generated in the large-scale research, but did not present the findings indicated in this article, Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2013). The study was reviewed and approved by the Bar-Ilan University School of Social Work Institutional Review Board. The participants were recruited in the same manner as described in Study 1 by undergraduate social work students working under the supervision of all the three authors. A total of 210 Jewish married couples of grandparents gave their informed consent to participate. Of these, 202 couples completed the full set of questionnaires and were included in the study.

The final sample (N = 404) consisted of grandparents whose first grandchild had been born 6–24 months earlier. Grandmother’s age ranged from 40 to 66 (M = 50.64, SD = 5.03), and grandfather’s age from 43 to 75 (M = 53.42, SD = 5.31). Over half of the participants (59%) had an academic degree, and around half (55%) defined their economic status as average.

Instruments

PTGI

The instrument as described in Study 1 was completed twice by each participant, once regarding their own growth, and again regarding their perception of their spouse’s growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). In this study, Cronbach’s αs for the 21 items were .97, .98 (for grandfathers as self-reporters and observers, respectively) and .97, .97 (for grandmothers as self-reporters and observers, respectively). Cronbach’s αs for the five dimensions were .90, .88, .90, .87, for new possibilities; .92, .92, .94, .93, for relating to others; .89, .89, .91, .88, for personal strength; .92 .93, .96, .94, for spiritual change; and .92, .90, .92, .91, for appreciation of life (for grandfathers’ and grandmothers’ self-reports and grandfathers’ and grandmothers’ observer reports, respectively). Each participant was thus assigned a personal growth score and a spousal-perceived growth score, computed by averaging responses on all items, as well as self-reported and spousal-perceived scores on each dimension, calculated in a similar manner. In all cases, higher scores indicated greater growth.

Demographic Questionnaire, as described in Study 1.

Results

The t-tests for paired samples were conducted to examine the associations and differences between self-reported growth and growth as perceived by the spouse. The tests were performed on the total growth score, as well as on each of the PTGI factors. The results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

Means, Standard Deviations, t Scores (For Paired Samples), and Correlations Between Grandparents’ Self-Reports and Spouses’ Reports (Study 2).

	Grandparent’s Self-Report		Spouse’s Report
	M	SD	M	SD	t(201)	Cohen’s d	r
Grandmothers
New possibilities	2.18	1.24	2.19	1.28	0.16	.01	.57***
Relating to others	2.21	1.34	2.21	1.39	0.06	.00	.48***
Personal strength	2.25	1.56	2.20	1.54	0.45	.03	.43***
Appreciation to life	2.51	1.43	2.45	1.48	0.65	.05	.57***
Spiritual change	2.15	1.67	2.06	1.72	0.78	.06	.54***
Personal growth (total score)	2.26	1.28	2.23	1.33	0.32	.02	.55***
Grandfathers
New possibilities	1.84	1.24	1.79	1.22	0.58	.04	.47***
Relating to others	1.90	1.32	1.99	1.40	0.85	.06	.42***
Personal strength	1.91	1.61	1.87	1.55	0.38	.02	.45***
Appreciation to life	2.23	1.54	2.16	1.53	0.67	.05	.48***
Spiritual change	1.86	1.64	1.72	1.71	1.36	.09	.59***
Personal growth (total score)	1.94	1.31	1.92	1.32	0.25	.02	.50***

***p < .001.

As Table 3 reveals, the growth experienced by new grandparents and the growth perceived by their spouses were significantly correlated, so that the higher the growth reported by the participant, the higher their spouse’s perception of their growth. Moreover, no significant differences were found between reported and perceived growth. Finally, both men and women reported the greatest change in the domain of appreciation of life.

Discussion and Application to Practice or Research

Social workers and especially those who work with families, often meet with new grandparents following the transition to their new role. However, it seems that thus far, social workers did not have any research-based validated instrument to assist them in assessing and promoting strengths-based social work practice in general, and personal growth, in particular, in this population. The current series of studies provides support for using the PTGI to assess growth among new grandparents. Evidence of the instruments’ applicability to this population was found in a variety of ways. First, spontaneous responses to an open-ended question regarding changes following the transition to grandparenthood were found to correspond to the PTGI dimensions. Second, the self-reported changes assessed by the PTGI were corroborated by significant others who have known the grandparents for a long time, their child and spouse. The associations for the spousal pairs were even stronger than those for the parent–child pairs, showing that the change is particularly apparent to the person with whom the grandparent shares his or her life, and that positive change following a major life event is an observable experience. This is in line with previous evidence relating to other such events (Shakespeare-Finch & Enders, 2008; Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2011; Weiss, 2002). Third, the five-factor structure of the PTGI for new grandparents was confirmed by the reliabilities that emerged in the two independent samples, which were similar to those found in previous studies using different populations. Fourth, the total growth score and the subscores obtained in these studies resemble those reported by previous studies examining both adverse events and life transitions such as academic studies or becoming a mother. Given that the transition to grandparenthood is less dramatic than the transition to parenthood (Taubman – Ben-Ari, 2012), that more traumatic events tend to encourage higher growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), and that older people tend to report lower growth than younger individuals (Bellizzi, 2004), the results of our studies appear to indicate not only that new grandparents may experience personal growth but also that their experience can be effectively measured by means of the PTGI.

Other findings of this research are also of interest. First is the lack of evidence of spiritual change in the responses to the open-ended question, and the relatively low score for this dimension on the scale. This is in line with the results of previous studies showing that mothers did not refer to this aspect of growth (Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2011), and that it produced the lowest score of the five factors on the PTGI among different populations (e.g., Sawyer & Ayers, 2009; Taku et al., 2008). On the other hand, the grandparents indicated the highest level of growth on the dimension of appreciation of life, followed by the personal strength. As in the case of spiritual change, these results resemble those reported by studies of growth following childbirth (Sawyer & Ayers, 2009; Taubman – Ben-Ari et al., 2011), indicating the similarity of the two experiences.

Another issue worthy of attention is that while the corroborating correlations found in Study 2 were moderate, those obtained in Study 1 were weaker, resembling those reported by Weiss (2002), and weaker than the correlations found by Shakespeare-Finch and Enders (2008), both of whom examined trauma survivors. As the transition to grandparenthood can be considered stress-related, but is not typically a traumatic event, the strength of our correlations is reasonable, and provides evidence both of the authenticity of the grandparents’ experience of growth and of the usefulness of employing offspring, and particularly spouses, to authenticate this experience.

Several possible limitations of our studies should be noted. First, they make use of a self-report instrument. Retrospective self-reports of growth have been criticized in the past for not measuring the actual change which occurred and relying on recall biases (e.g., Frazier et al., 2009). Although we used more than a single method to assess the growth (a traditional scale, an open-ended question, external observers) and approached participants when they were still in the midst of the transition to grandparenthood, future research might employ a prospective design in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of grandparents’ experience of growth. A previous prospective study, which measured maternal grandmothers’ growth in the third trimester of their daughter’s pregnancy and a short time after the birth, reported both evidence of growth and a strong positive correlation between the two measures (Ben Shlomo, Taubman – Ben-Ari, Findler, Sivan, & Dolizki, 2010). This suggests that indications of growth are not merely the result of a recall bias, an assertion that warrants further confirmation. The corroboration of PTGI scores by external observers in our studies provides further support for the notion that growth is not simply an illusion. Second, our samples were drawn from various areas in Israel, and efforts were made to ensure their heterogeneity. Moreover, these data were obtained from the community rather than from a student population. However, as the cultural characteristics of Israel, such as the importance of familial ties (Florian, 1989), may not be typical of other societies, it would be interesting to endeavor to confirm our findings in future cross-cultural studies.

Notwithstanding these limitations, this series of studies represents the first attempt to examine the PTGI’s suitability for use in samples of new grandparents. The studies provide evidence of the instrument’s five-factor structure and its convergent validity in this population, indicating that the PTGI may serve as an effective and suitable tool for measuring positive changes in the transition to grandparenthood. Although more research is recommended on this issue, the findings have considerable importance for the practice of social work interventions that focus on individuals’ potential strengths, abilities, and capacities (Grant & Cadell, 2009; McQuaide & Ehrenreich, 1997). More specifically, they indicate that the PTGI can serve as the basis of joint efforts by social workers and families during life transitions to identify the available resources that may enable personal development and growth following the grandparents’ transition to their new role. It is our hope that the findings will encourage the use of this tool to promote such strengths-based interventions for new grandparents.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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