Labor Market Integration of Young Adult Refugees in Germany: Triangulating Perspectives Toward Program Development

Abstract

This article reports on the 18-month formative evaluation of a model project aimed at preparing young adult refugees (YARs) for entry into vocational education training (VET) as an essential step toward the labor market. Qualitative methods were used to gain insight into the perspectives of YARs, program staff, and vocational instructors as well as explore program dynamics. Within a longitudinal research design, 45 qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted with 22 of 27 program participants. Additionally, program staff and vocational instructors were interviewed. Qualitative content analysis guided the analytic process. Outcome data indicated that 83.3% of program completers or 55.6% of the program participants entered a VET within the evaluation period. Triangulated qualitative data revealed relevant program processes and generated hypotheses about factors that facilitate or hinder the difficult transition for YARs. Implications for program development as well as needed structural changes are discussed.

Keywords

young adult refugees program evaluation formative evaluation outcome research labor market integration vocational training

In 2007, German Chancellor Angela Merkel declared that integration is “the key task of our time” (The Federal Government, 2007, p. 7). This task has become more pressing since 1.2 million refugees entered Germany within a short period of time during the years of 2015 and 2016. In the summer 2017, 490,000 refugees were registered by German job centers and labor agencies (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2017). Facilitating their transition into the labor market is seen as an important step toward stabilization and ultimately integration (Tangermann & Grote, 2018). Prior research suggests that early labor market integration is a key determinant of long-term outcomes (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2017) while employment bans have multiple adverse consequences (Marbach et al., 2018).

The German labor market, due to low unemployment rates and demographic imbalances (e.g., low birth rate, aging workforce), currently offers optimal conditions for entry. Yet access for refugees or people with a migration background is often challenging as previously documented (e.g., Aybek, 2014; Beicht & Granato, 2009, 2011; Braun & Lex, 2016; Enggruber & Rützel, 2014; Kogan, 2010; Lichtwardt, 2016; Pohl, 2013). According to the OECD and the European Commission (2016), “refugees are one of the most vulnerable groups when it comes to labor market integration” (p. 30). Asylum-seekers in particular have limited possibilities to enter the formal labor market as countries want to deter the use of the asylum application process as a means of gaining access to employment (OECD, 2017).

This article reports on the 18-month formative evaluation of a model project, which aimed to transition young adult refugees (YARs) into vocational education training (VET) as an essential step toward the skilled labor market. The evaluation tracked entry rates into VET and triangulated data from multiple project participants to examine program dynamics and underlying mechanisms in order to shape program development. The article provides salient background information about the German vocational training and labor system, describes the conceptual foundation and core elements of the model project and reports on the methods, findings, and implications of the evaluation study.

Salient Background Information

Policy Context

Although Germany has been a receiving country for labor migrants since the 1950–1960s, a systematic concept for integration had been lacking for a long time (Vogel, 2010). In 2006, the first national summit on integration was convened. The final summit report—The National Integration Plan of 2007—laid the foundation for subsequent integration efforts and was operationalized in the National Action Plan of 2011, which formulated specific goals and benchmarks (The Federal Government, 2011). One aim was to create equal access for migrants and refugees to all levels of education and training in order to reduce disparities and improve chances for advancement.

In July 2016, a new integration law was passed (Der Bundestag, 2016), which reflected changes in the overall integration concept. It takes an approach of “support and demand” and promotes integration by providing greater access to the labor market and to language courses (The Federal Government, 2016). For instance, refugees can now receive work permits after three months if they fulfill certain legal requirements (e.g., person applied for asylum; is not from a “secure state;” Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, 2017; OECD, 2017). A “3 + 2 rule” has been implemented, which allows some refugees to start vocational training and to remain in Germany during the time of training (Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, 2017; OECD, 2017). Refugees who successfully complete vocational training can apply for a 2-year employment permit if they find a job and fulfill a few other requirements. In return, refugees are expected to actively participate in integration courses, which can be mandatory (The Federal Government, 2019). To facilitate the pathway into the job market, a number of innovative projects, funded through a range of sources, have been initiated throughout Germany.

Germany’s Vocational Education Training (VET) System

A special feature of the German labor market is its reliance on a dual VET system as a pathway into the labor market. Dual VET encompasses a 2- to 3-year apprenticeship within a company while receiving theoretical education, which includes both general education and vocation-specific courses. The theoretical education takes place in public vocational schools. VETs are one essential link in what is described as the “education chain” [Bildungskette] (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, n.d.). This overarching concept is meant to guide national, state, and regional initiatives aimed at facilitating the transition from school into the skilled labor market. A successfully passed VET is widely seen as a necessary qualification to enter the labor market. Having no vocational degree has been described as “educational poverty” [Bildungsarmut] and considerably limits employment opportunities (Rammstedt, 2013; Voigt, 2018). Germany’s VET system has long received global recognition for its ability to maintain low numbers of youth unemployment and for producing a highly skilled labor force (OECD, 2013).

To start VET, young people need to meet basic schooling requirements and exhibit certain psychological or personality traits (e.g., communication and organizational skills) as well as physical traits for some vocations. Central in this regard is a concept, which is literally translated as “training maturity” [Ausbildungsreife]. Training maturity is considered a prerequisite to enter VET and is an implicit or explicit goal for many labor market projects (The Federal Employment Agency, 2006). Yet, its assessment remains obscure and has been criticized for lacking a scientific base (Dobischat & Schurgatz, 2015). Critics claim that it is instead used in political discussions to blame young people for failing to meet qualification standards and to justify questionable remedial interventions and programs (Dobischat et al., 2012; Eberhard, 2006).

While Germany’s VET system continues to offer many opportunities for entry into the skilled labor market, an increasing number of young people fail to meet requirements and are unable to directly transition into VET. This includes growing numbers of young Germans (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2018). Not surprisingly, young migrants are significantly underrepresented in the VET system. In 2015, 13.4% of young people, ages 20–34, had no vocational degree in Germany. Disaggregated, 29.8% were young people with a migration background and 8.8% were Germans (Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, 2017). The prospects for newly arrived refugees are even grimmer. Reasons for these disparities are complex and include both personal and structural barriers (Braun & Lex, 2016; Granato et al., 2015; Wiedner et al., 2018). Many young refugees lack the requisite language skills and may be used to much less formalized ways of entering the labor market. In addition, the uncertainty of their legal status presents a perpetual challenge. While some have had no or just brief exposure to formal education, there is in fact “high diversity in qualification levels among recent arrivals” (OECD, 2017, p. 13). Around 60% of employed refugees in the European Union are overqualified for the jobs they occupy. Viewing this diversity as a strength would require flexible integration programs able to accommodate various skills and educational levels (OECD, 2017). Lastly, migration experiences and their resultant psychosocial consequences may impede young people’s ability to meet the demands of formal work environments (e.g., Edge et al., 2014). Existing policies and structures, which often involve long waiting periods and extended episodes of inactivity, are likely to exacerbate existing risk factors and present significant stressors for young adults who aim to rebuild their lives as quickly as possible—to support not only themselves but also the families they have left behind (OECD, 2017).

Ten years ago, Solga (2009) warned that 40% of young people (with and without migration background) were in need of vocational transition services as a preparation for entry into VET. This particularly concerns young people with low or no school degrees (Skrobanek, 2015). Vocational transition support has emerged as a field of social services and has become increasingly relevant in offering programs and creating structures that facilitate a more efficient exchange between job centers and the child and youth welfare system (Mairhofer, 2017). A range of transition support programs are now offered through various public and private agencies. The complexity and lack of transparence of these programs and their processes have been criticized (Mairhofer, 2017).

Labor Market Integration Projects for Refugees in Germany

In response to the influx of refugees in 2015/2016, multiple labor market integration projects at the national, state, and regional level have been initiated (Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 2017; Hessian Ministry for Social Affairs and Integration, n.d.). While projects are highly diverse in terms of scope, duration, intensity, and target group, most are guided by principles and concepts that have emerged out of practice, theory, and some research. These principles and concepts are captured in policy initiatives, such as the “Education Chains Initiative” [Bildungsketten Initative], which aim to more effectively guide the transition from school to labor market (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, n.d.). Salient elements recommended in the area of labor market integration for refugees are immediate/early access to language training, systematic assessment of qualifications and competencies, orientation to the labor market, support services to aid transition between education and labor market, integration services during VET and job, flexibility in managing and coordinating elements and procedural steps as well as counseling and coaching (Aumüller, 2016). Although research in this area has significantly increased in recent years, much remains to be learned about processes, effective program elements, and outcomes of labor market and transition programs for refugees. One study, which was commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Migration and Refugees and evaluated 12 general integration projects, noted benefits for participants as well as positive structural changes (Reinecke et al., 2014a, 2014b). Findings supported the importance of fit between program concepts and the specific needs of participants. Other salient predictors of program success included competent, diverse, and stable staff, including staff with a migration background, resource-oriented relationships between staff and participants, and follow-up services.

The Model Project

The project being evaluated is the result of a collaborative effort between the state of Hessia and the city of Kassel, a midsize city in the north of the state (population of 204,000). Of the city’s population, 18% do not have a German passport and 39% have a migration background. The model project commenced in the summer 2016. Its aim is to support YARs, both male and female between the ages of 18–25, toward the attainment of training maturity with the expectation that upon completion of the program, YARs will be ready to transition into VET.

The model project took place under the auspices of a public social service agency and is guided by a social work/pedagogical project team, which has a supportive, coordinating, problem-solving, and case managing function. A central component is the recruitment of employees from city companies who volunteer to instruct and mentor YARs during structured internships. These instructors receive training in intercultural competence and refugee-specific issues (e.g., migration, trauma, language) and participate in an exchange network. Internships are offered in different fields such as gardening, mechanics, cooking, or painting. Additionally, external companies have been recruited to extend the placement options (e.g., health care) and expand the network. YARs are referred from the local job center or through other social agencies working with refugees. Each cohort involves ten participants. If a participant drops out during the first few weeks, their place can be filled by a new participant.

The project is conceptualized over a 10-month period and has continued to develop and sharpen its concepts. It reflects the principles and concepts of current federal and state policies on labor market integration of refugees (as laid out above) and draws on agency experiences with prior labor market integration projects. However, particular emphasis is placed on coaching and mentoring through VET instructors as well as project staff, hands-on experiences through workshops and internships, and the development of support structures for the YARs beyond the project. An explicit aim at an organizational level is the expansion of public network structures to develop better internship and work opportunities for YARs.

Following an initial assessment phase, during which data are gathered on YARs social competencies and other relevant background information, YARs go through a 3-month orientation phase. They enroll in a German language course, take field visits to different company sites, receive case management support, and participate in a workshop where they complete various wood and metal projects. The primary aim of this phase is to orientate and socialize YARs to the norms and expectations of the German labor market and to build group cohesion. In the main phase, lasting about 6 months, participants are engaged in one longer or several brief internships, which are supervised by vocational instructors. During this time, they continue taking German language classes and receive individual support and mentoring as needed. Figure 1 provides an overview of the overall program concept. Since the project commenced, three cohorts of YARs have completed the project. A fourth cohort started in September 2019.

Figure 1.

Project concept.

Evaluation Methods

Evaluation Aims

About 10 months into the project, funding was provided for an evaluation, and a partnership was entered with the primary author, a professor at the University of Kassel, Department of Social Work. While also tracking VET entry rates, the 18-month evaluation (July 2017 to December 2018) involved primarily formative aims to provide scientific data toward the conceptual development of the project. By design, the evaluation was meant to encourage dialogue between program staff and evaluators. For purposes of this article, the analysis focuses on the triangulation of perspectives of the three project groups—YARs, program staff, and vocational instructors—to identify program dynamics and underlying mechanisms that foster or hinder the success of the project. Although the evaluation was conceived as a mixed methods project, data collection was predominantly based on qualitative interviews, which given small participant cohorts, continuous development of project concepts, and the central aim of exploring context and processes was justified. Ethics approval was obtained through the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Human Sciences at the University of Kassel.

Evaluation Design

To facilitate an in-depth understanding of program dynamics and foster longitudinal engagement with the YARs, three data collection time points over the 18-month period were intended. Qualitative interviews with YARs were augmented by formal and informal contact with program staff at various times throughout the project and semistructured interviews with vocational instructors at intermittent points based on willingness and availability. As the evaluation commenced at the end of the first year of the project, data collection for Cohort 1 included interviews upon completion of the program and at 6- and 12-month follow-up. Cohort 2 was followed from beginning to the end of their project participation and was interviewed at the beginning of the project (pre-interview), after 6 months and at the end of the project (see Figure 2). The different data collection time points imply a cohort-specific context that needs to be considered.

Figure 2.

Study design.

Field Access and Sample

All participating YARs of Cohorts 1 and 2 were eligible to participate in the evaluation. Altogether 27 YARs had enrolled, which included nine YARs who dropped out at some point. Each cohort was informed about the evaluation project through a group meeting at the agency running the project. The independence of the evaluation and the voluntary nature of participation were stressed along with other standard informed consent information. All but five YARs who had dropped out of the project early on agreed to participate in the evaluation (n = 22) and consent was obtained. Vocational instructors were contacted through the project and alerted to the evaluation.

Table 1 provides an overview of some sociodemographic characteristics of participating YARs by cohort. YARs were between 19 and 25 years of age. They were mostly male with only one female in each cohort. Participants from both cohorts had been in Germany from 2 to 5 years. Their language skills were heterogeneous, ranging from pre- to upperintermediate levels. The two cohorts differed with regard to their countries of origin and their educational level, with participants in Cohort 2 coming mostly from Syria and being more educated.

Table 1.

Description of Project Participants.

Participant Characteristics	Cohort 1 (n = 13)		Cohort 2 (n = 14)		Total (n = 27)
Participant Characteristics	Completed (n = 8)	Dropped Out (n = 5)	Completed (n = 10)	Dropped Out (n = 4)	Total (n = 27)
Gender
Male	7	5*	9	4*	25
Female	1	—	1	0	2
Country of origin
Afghanistan	4	3	1	—	8
Eritrea	1	1	1	1	4
India	1	—	—	—	1
Somalia	—	1	—	—	1
Syria	2	—	8	3	13
Prior higher education
Yes	1	0	4	1	6
No	7	4	6	2	19
No information	—	1	—	1	2

Note. Of the nine dropouts, four participated in the evaluation.

Data Collection

Semistructured qualitative interviews were conducted with the three project groups at the different times specified above. Particular efforts were made to conduct interviews with YARs who had dropped out to understand factors that discouraged participation. Interview guides were developed a priori for each group and focused on various domains. For instance, the first interviews with YARs included questions about their background and history, their pathways into the project, their time and experiences in the project (Cohort 1), a self-appraisal of their own strengths, areas of difficulty, and their future perspectives. Subsequent interviews explored perceptions about their progress (either in the project or in the VET), their successes and difficulties, as well as problem-solving strategies. Interviews with vocational instructors focused on their motivation and qualifications to mentor, their perceptions of the YARs, and the program itself. Formal and informal interviews with program staff aimed to explore program concepts and their logic, staffs’ perceptions about all aspects of the programs, including their own role, as well as problems and barriers that emerged in their work with the YARs. Finally, documents were reviewed to understand the program and policy context, and some observations of project activities took place.

Altogether 45 individual interviews were conducted with 22 YARs. This included eight interviews with four participants who had dropped out at different times. A total of 13 YARs agreed to multiple interviews. Interviews with YARs were conducted in German by trained members of the research team. All interviewees were willing to be interviewed in German. While the use of interpreters may alleviate some problems related to language, in qualitative interviews they have also been found to be a threat to validity (Kapborga & Berterö, 2002). We opted to reduce the potential effect of language problems through prolonged engagement (formal and informal contacts at the agency) as well as repeated interviews with some YARs (the same researcher interviewed the same YAR multiple times except in one case), which in the majority of cases provided opportunities for clarification. We also noted that as the study progressed, the language skills of some YARs improved notably. Interviews lasted from 45 to 90 min and were completed at places convenient to the participants. YARs received a gift card for each interview as a token of appreciation. Other data collection methods included a focus group with five YARs of Cohort 2 at the 6-month point in the program as well as informal observation of program activities involving YARs. Four program staff were interviewed, some repeatedly. Interviews with vocational instructors included eight with instructors from public city companies and two with external company instructors.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Interviews were audio recorded. Relevant phone calls and informal conversations with program staff, a focus group with YARs and observations were carefully documented. All interviews were subsequently transcribed and along with the protocols provided the basis for analysis. Audio recordings were in part listened to by two members of the research team to ensure accuracy of transcription. Qualitative content analysis, principally building on Mayring’s methods (2014), was used to code and analyze the data. Content analysis is a flexible method that allows the researcher to reflect the experiences and the reality of the participants. In this study, analysis had both deductive and inductive aspects and encompassed in-depth case description and comparison as well as the identification of predominant themes. The following steps were involved: First, the empirical material contained in the interviews was coded at a very general level in order to condense the data into analyzable units. Segments of interviews ranging from a phrase to several paragraphs were assigned codes based on a priori or emergent themes. Peer debriefing sessions were held to discuss the coding structure and enhance the credibility of the findings. These procedures resulted in an enhanced definition of codes. Member checks in the form of follow-up and/or informal contacts and as part of the focus group were conducted throughout the data collection, transcription, and analysis process. The software MAXQDA 12.3 was used for data management, coding, and analysis (VERBI Software, 2016).

Results

Of the 22 YARs who participated in the evaluation, 15 entered VET, with one having completed a 1-year VET by the end of the evaluation, and two dropping out of VET within the first year. One additional person was in a qualification program with the hope of subsequently being able to transition into VET. Three had not started VET and were engaged in other activities (e.g., taking more language classes). For three YARs, no outcome data were available (see Table 2). This means that 83.3% of project completers (n = 18), 68.2% of evaluation participants (n = 22), or 55.6% of project participants (n = 27) entered a VET. Taking the two YARs into account that had already dropped out of VET, the percentages would decrease to 72.2%, 59.1%, or 48.1%, respectively.

Table 2.

Vocational Education Training (VET) Entry Rate.

YARs Status	Cohort 1 (n = 13)	Cohort 2 (n = 14)	Total (n = 27)
Completed VET	1	—	1
Currently in VET	5	7	12
In transition/qualification program	—	1	1
Dropped out of VET	1	1	2
Didn’t start VET/other activities	1	2	3
No information	1	2	3
(not part of evaluation)	4	1	5

Four overarching themes emerged from the qualitative data through the lens of the three groups—YARs, program staff, and vocational instructors. These included “the divergence of goals, expectations and interests,” “getting stuck in the transition system,” “the saliency of relationships, mentoring and social networks,” and “intercultural challenges.”

Divergence of Goals, Expectations, and Interests

All three groups repeatedly addressed the gap between the formal requirements of the system, the programmatic goals, and the expectations of the YARs. Although each YAR was assessed, interviewed, and informed prior to starting the program, YARs often began without any clear sense of what the project was about, what its goals were, and what was expected of them. They joined in part because of a lack of better options and some believed that after program completion they would be able to enter the labor market instead of being prepared to enter VET. While program staff and vocational instructors aimed to prepare YARs sufficiently to meet the requirements of the German system, YARs primary concern was to learn skills to work and earn money as quickly as possible. The gap in understanding goals and requirements seems to be in part due to the unfamiliarity with the highly structured German educational and labor market system. One YAR commented that obtaining a job in his country might simply require “a handshake” if there is a recognized need and the requisite skill can be offered. As such, the structures of the German system were at times puzzling and perceived as considerable obstacles. Having divergent expectations and goals contributed to much frustration for the YARs and was one of the primary reasons cited for dropping out. This dynamic played out in all program aspects.

Orientation phase

Program staff placed considerable emphasis on the 3-month orientation phase, viewing it as an essential time for orientation and group cohesion. This view was only partially shared by the YARs who acknowledged the value of the relationships and interactions with program staff but complained about the length of this phase and its activities (i.e., wood and metal work), which only a few were interested in or found meaningful. This was particularly true for YARs who were well educated in their country of origin.

Internship phase

Divergent views were also evident with regard to the 6-month internship phase. Again, YARs considered this period too long as they earned little money during this time and were at times placed in internships for which they lacked interest. A primary complaint was that the internship did not guarantee entry into VET, which left YARs to question the value of having spent 10 months in a VET-preparation program. This uncertainty combined with occasional difficulties faced during internships (e.g., difficulties with task performance, language, or with colleagues) was often highly discouraging for YARs. Not surprisingly, negative appraisals came particularly from YARs who had dropped out or did not secure a VET following the program. By the same token, the internship succeeded in providing an understanding of the expectations of the labor market and was ultimately viewed by most YARs as a useful introduction as well as a safe space for solving problems and overcoming barriers. Vocational instructors reported varied experiences with YARs during the internship phase. Misunderstandings were common, yet several vocational instructors commented positively on the attitudes and work ethic of YARs as well as their high level of social competence, which to some instructors was unexpected and surprising.

Language training

Overall, language and communication were constant themes across participant groups as there are required minimum standards for schooling/training as well as for citizenship. As such, German language training is an integral part of labor market integration projects for refugees. Yet, YARs perspectives on its value were highly critical. A lack of attention paid to heterogeneous language levels, insufficient focus on grammar and specialized vocabulary (needed for internships) were criticisms from YARs as well as vocational instructors. Some YARs ended up taking German classes outside the program, which they found to be more helpful.

Beyond language training

Since many VET programs involve technical areas YARs generally need competencies in math and physics. The project included little formal training in these areas, which was viewed as problematic by vocational instructors who realized the need for it. Program staff and vocational instructors repeatedly voiced concerns about the eventual prospects of YARs to pass the theoretical portion of VET. This was echoed by the YARs who expressed the need for extra and continued support in this area.

Getting Stuck in the Transition System

Within the education chains framework, individuals are expected to follow along a preset trajectory, which presupposes a considerable time investment at each stage with repeated markers, at which the progress of participants is formally evaluated (i.e., through tests and exams). Program elements were conceptualized with this in mind. Yet there was evidence of the risk of “getting stuck in the transition system.”

An uncertain future

All groups expressed their concerns about the future of the YARs and their ability to transition to “the next level” in the education chain. Concerns arose out of questions about the adequacy of the preparatory training provided through the project, the known demands of the VET system (particularly the theoretical portion of the training), and the educational and language gaps of the YARs. YARs wondered aloud whether their skills would be sufficient to transition into a VET and complete it.

The potential for exploitation

While not a common problem, interviews with YARs and vocational instructors suggested the potential for exploitation by having to repeat internships rather than transitioning into VET. Reasons for this were varied. One public company vocational educator saw this danger particularly in the context of external cooperation companies and suggested the need for legal training in the first year to teach YARs about their rights in the context of labor laws.

The Saliency of Relationships, Mentoring, and Social Networks

All participant groups agreed that the personal relationships and the mentorship provided through vocational instructors and program staff were a salient part of the program. The personal attention, facilitated by the project’s small size, was instrumental in solving a number of difficult problems and, on several occasions, prevented additional instances of dropping out. Personal interest and problem-solving by program staff and vocational instructors extended at times to personal situations, not just program-related issues. This was positively remarked upon by YARs. The centrality of relationships was also apparent in the cooperative relationships between program staff and vocational instructors. Conversely, difficult relationships had a negative impact, affecting perceptions of the entire program and contributing to dropout. Several pertinent themes emerged.

“Feeling treated like children—dealing with teenagers”

The programmatic goals of socializing YARs to the norms and values of the German labor market often meant that YARs received negative feedback for behaviors such as being late or being inattentive. This contributed at times to difficult relationship dynamics between female program staff and the mostly male YARs that were at times reminiscent of parent–adolescent power dynamics. YARs frequently expressed feeling nagged and not being treated like adults, whereas program staff were irritated by behaviors they perceived as oppositional or manipulative.

“It’s personal”

As relationships were a key mechanism to achieving program goals, it required an emotional investment on the part of all participants that could be exhausting as well as rewarding. Disappointments about behaviors and instances of dropping out were at times taken personally by program staff. Responding to the fact that some YARs had dropped out after utilizing other options to enter the labor market, program staff commented that they had expected “greater loyalty.” Yet, the level of personal investment in the YARs also prompted program staff and some vocational instructors to keep engaging with YARs despite difficult situations.

Mentoring and networking beyond the program

All groups agreed that mentoring and formal forms of support beyond the program would be necessary in the transition to the labor market. YARs repeatedly voiced the need for this level of support and sought it out. Some contacted program staff and vocational instructors after having entered VET in order to use the relationship for advice. Beyond that, there was some evidence of intracohort networking. For instance, participants from Cohort 1 established an exchange network on their own through regular meetings and social media.

Contact to Germans

The program did not include features that deliberately fostered contacts with Germans outside the program activities. However, YARs repeatedly expressed the desire for more social exchange with Germans. Many of them had few contacts with Germans in their personal life, and the structure of the program meant that they spent a good portion of the program with individuals from their own country, thus limiting opportunities to practice their language skills or develop personal relationships with German nationals.

Evolving relationships

Repeated interviews with individual YARs demonstrated that relationships and perceptions about relationships with program staff evolved over time. YARs who had been highly critical of the program and particular staff during the first two interviews offered more balanced perspectives during their final interview, acknowledging the “good intentions” of staff and instructors.

Intercultural Challenges

“Culture” was a steady undercurrent that influenced many aspects of the program. It was particularly apparent in misunderstandings in communication as well as divergent norms and values.

Miscommunication

Misunderstandings arose in part out of divergent values and norms regarding time and punctuality as well as the observance of religious holidays that for some YARs were important. YARs also expressed feeling at times misunderstood or disrespected. One YAR, narrating on the question what skills an instructor should have, emphasized the need to be patient, to take YARs seriously in their opinions and experiences, and to not shame them. The importance of a nonjudgmental atmosphere was emphasized as cultural, and language barriers were frequently the reason for clarifying and repeated questions. The project provided (one-time) intercultural trainings for vocational instructors, which were found to be very helpful by them but may not suffice.

Gender

Cultural dynamics also extended to gender relations. Problematic relationship dynamics between female program staff and the female language teacher of the first cohort suggest that cultural norms about gender-related behaviors may impact some aspects of the program, and efforts were made to hire male staff when a female staff member had left. These issues do not just apply to dynamics between staff and YARs but also impacted intragroup processes. The program struggled to recruit and keep women in the program. Since the vast majority of YARs that have come to Germany are male, this is not an easy problem to solve for small programs such as this.

Focusing on deficits

Data suggested that staff and instructors frequently viewed YARs in terms of their deficits and evaluated their performance in light of what was lacking to meet the standards of the German system. Bi- or multilingual skills or a previous academic background were seldom framed as strengths or capital to be utilized and fostered. However, there is evidence that over the course of the evaluation attitudes among support staff began to shift toward a more resource-oriented perspective.

Discussion

How to interpret the outcomes of the project is a matter of perspective and counting. The official goal of the project, namely entry into a VET, was attained by 48.1–83.3% of participants, depending on denominator and inclusion or exclusion of VET dropouts. The highest rate of 83.3% presents the group of project completers who subsequently entered VET. This outcome is indeed impressive and shows that the project largely succeeded in guiding participants into VET who had remained in the program. Yet, even the lowest rate of 48.1%, which is based on the total number of YARs (n = 27) who had entered the project during the two years and excludes the two participants who had already dropped out of VET, far exceeds the one third of applicants with a refugee background who, according to other studies, succeed in entering VET (e.g., Granato & Neises, 2017; Matthes et al., 2018). Beyond VET entry rates, the project doubtlessly supported socialization processes into the German labor market. One program staff emphasized its value even if only one YAR would be successful in transitioning into the labor market. The perspectives of the YARs were multilayered with entry into VET being a primary goal. However, secondary outcomes to them included the ability to earn money, the attainment of a degree of self-sufficiency, and the ability to meet their obligations, which included being able to support or help their families in Germany or their countries of origin. Multiyear longitudinal studies will be necessary to examine YARs’ pathways through the education chain and to determine the effectiveness of preparatory programs such as this.

Implications for Program Development

Qualitative data offered an in-depth examination of the anatomy of the program. The triangulation of perspectives revealed multiple factors that are hypothesized to affect program success. These seem to be mostly in line with previous evaluations of integration programs and point to areas in need of program adjustment or refinement (e.g., Reinecke et al., 2014a, 2014b; Wiedner et al., 2018). While findings presented above already implied potential areas to be modified or developed, this section synthesizes the most salient points.

Aligning goals and expectations through a focused selection process

Given the success with YARs who remained in the program, a primary focus needs to be directed at preventing YARs from dropping out. Analysis suggested a highly heterogeneous group of YARs and a lack of clarity on the part of the project about inclusion criteria. Criteria would shift and be adjusted again throughout the program but remained diffuse despite a standardized assessment at the beginning, which was insufficiently used for selection purposes. Findings suggested two possible pathways forward.

Narrowing the focus

Narrowing the focus would imply selecting YARs with respect to their background, competencies and future aims to improve fit with the specific features of the program. This may involve identifying participants (based on assessment data) who express an openness toward the type of vocational and technical activities and internships the program has to offer. It may also mean either focusing on male YARs as women were underrepresented or dropped out or making program adjustments to specifically recruit and support women. (Subsequent analysis has led to the development of a typology, which could guide this process. This will be summarized elsewhere.)

Individualizing

Alternatively, the program could follow a more individualized approach and adjust its program features based on participants’ individual needs and interests. This would imply, for instance, an adjustment of content during the orientation phase based on individual interests by providing a broader range of internships and avoiding internships that do not appear to be a good fit. It could also mean greater tailoring of the language course toward individual skill levels. This degree of individualization would be possible in a program as small as this.

Regardless of the path chosen, greater care needs to be taken to fully inform participants about the goals, content, process, and possible outcomes of the program. Expectations by staff should be made transparent and regular reflection of processes and problems be a regular part of the program. To ensure improved alignment of goals and interests, assessment data need to be systematically utilized. The selection process should also include a more thorough consideration of possible group dynamics in each cohort.

Resource orientation and a culture of mutual learning

Findings suggested that a resource-oriented approach should be a guiding principle for program development. The focus on YARs’ deficits was one factor cited by participants who had dropped out. Program concepts need to address the needs of participants, their individual skills as well as transnational life circumstances. This includes not only their current situation in Germany, such as the recognition of their migration status or living situation, but also the skills, knowledge, and resources that they might have obtained in home or transit countries. As highlighted in the guidelines for integration by the state of Hessia as well as the Hessian plan for integration, bilingual language skills should be acknowledged as a resource and cultures of origins respected (Hessian Ministry for Social Affairs and Integration, n.d.). While not diminishing the need to learn German, programs such as the one described here need to create space for participants to converse about their cultures of origin. Sharing experiences and learning about common ground as well as differences could facilitate understanding for each other within the group and contribute to an environment of mutual learning and appreciation. Instead of fostering integration, which has been defined as a mutual process, ideas of assimilation turned out to be dominant in the practical implementation of the program.

Mentoring relationships—present and continuous

The qualitative data underscored the saliency of mentoring relationships that go beyond program-related challenges to also support YARs in their personal lives—a finding, which is supported by research that identifies mentoring as a “best practice” to reduce social exclusion (e.g., Nakeyar et al., 2019) while also contributing to transformative learning for mentors (Shan & Butterwick, 2017). Beyond that, there is a need for continued mentoring relationships as well as tutoring once the formal program ends. Continuous relationships and support have been identified in other studies as factors for sustainable success of integration programs (e.g., Haack et al., 2018; Reinecke et al., 2014a, 2014b). This would include a stronger collaboration with all parts of the VET system (vocational schools and training sites) to sensitize professionals in this system to the shared as well as unique needs of YARs. Fostering the continuity of relationships in formal ways would require flexible funding streams and programming by, for instance, assigning case managers, coaches, or mentors to cases rather than to programs.

Building social networks

Contact to the receiving society is a crucial factor for social integration and the learning of the language. While the program fostered mentoring relationships between YARs and program staff as well as vocational instructors, the ultimate goals of the program could be supported by adding program concepts that connect YARs with German citizens and expand their social networks. The role of social networks as a positive factor for labor market outcomes and overall integration has been supported in multiple studies (e.g., Bramoullé & Saint-Paul, 2010; Cappellari & Tatsiramos, 2015; Piracha et al., 2016).

The Need for Structural Adaptations

The evaluation revealed the need for fundamental structural changes as the risk of YARs “getting stuck” in the transition or dropping out of the process is considerable (e.g., Graßhoff & Schröer, 2018). It is hypothesized that even a perfectly designed VET preparation program will ultimately be limited in its impact without commensurate changes at organizational levels that would lead to the removal of persistent structural barriers. This includes for instance the recognition of foreign degrees and/or the speeding up of processes to establish the equivalency of degrees. Softening current language requirements by allowing refugees to enter training and vocational programs while still learning the language may be one way forward. A societal shift toward greater openness for multilinguality in public life is viewed as necessary but would require attitudinal and political changes that are unlikely to happen in the near future. In addition, greater utilization of already existing resources to support tutoring during VET or the creation of additional supportive programs and structures during the VET process is viewed as necessary.

Limitations and Strengths

This study had a number of limitations that affect its interpretation. It involved the evaluation of one program with two small cohorts and different data collection time points. The small number of program participants and the underdeveloped program theory necessitated a formative approach. Hypotheses emerging out of the data would need to be tested in a more rigorous study involving a control or comparison group design.

In addition, miscommunication due to language or cultural barriers cannot be entirely ruled out although great care was taken to clarify and confirm data. The prolonged engagement with the program and its participants and the triangulation of perspectives and methods allowed for a rich and in-depth analysis of context and perspectives, which is valuable in furthering the development of program theory as a foundation for subsequent summative research.

Conclusions

Projects such as the one evaluated here occupy an important transitional space for YARs, and as shown, can lead to positive results. Transitions could further be eased by strengthening and maintaining relationships and building social networks, by capitalizing on the many resources that YARs have and by ensuring an optimal fit between program objectives and individual aptitudes and goals. This will require a resource-oriented and supportive approach with individual YARs but needs to also involve the building of sustainable networks.

The evaluation study facilitated regular exchange between the evaluation team and program staff, which proved to be open for data-derived observations and hypotheses. Multiple suggestions for program development have already been adopted and implemented by the agency such as shortening the orientation phase from three to two months, including a mixed-gender support team and having a greater focus on relevant vocational content. Ideally, the effect of these changes would have to be evaluated. There is need for much greater specification of program concepts and fidelity in their implementation. Findings of this evaluation with regard to factors and mechanisms driving the program largely converge with results from the growing number of labor market integration studies, indicating that it should be possible to define “best practice” in this area. Lessons learned from the implementation of these practices within local contexts would contribute to research-supported practice in this field.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: The program evaluation was funded by the Hessian Ministry of Social Affairs and Integration and supported by the city of Kassel.

ORCID iD

Sigrid James

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