This article reviews the state of the art of social work practice with homeless persons. The
purpose of this article is to make social work practitioners and researchers aware of the
empirically supported knowledge about homeless people and how to help them. Different types
of interventions for different types of homeless persons are reviewed and 10 areas for practice
innovation and advocacy are identified. The authors argue for a practice research that guides
interventions to eradicate homelessness.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Acker, P.J., Fierman, A.H., & Dreyer, B.P. (1987). An assessment of parameters of health care and nutrition in homeless children. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 141, 388.
2.
Adams, C.T. (1986). Homelessness in the post-industrial city: Views from London and Philadelphia. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 21, 527-549.
3.
Alperstein, G., Rappaport, C., & Flanagan, J.M. (1988). Health problems of children in New York City. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1232-1233.
4.
Auerbach, C., Beckerman, A., & Levitt, L. (1990). Can homelessness be prevented? An evaluation of homelessness prevention program. The Jewish Social Work Forum, 26, 31-37.
5.
Avery, R.K., & O'Connell, J.J. (1992). Human immunodeficiency virus and homeless persons. In D. Wood (Ed.), Delivering health care to homeless persons (pp. 114-132). New York: Springer.
6.
Barker, R.T. (1990). At home with the homeless: An experience in transcultural communication. Journal of Independent Social Work, 4(4), 61-73.
7.
Barrow, S.M., Hellman, F., Lovell, A.M., Plapinger, J.D., & Struening, E.L. (1989). Effectiveness of programs for the mentally ill homeless: Final report. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.
8.
Bass, D. (1992). Helping vulnerable youths: Runaway and homeless adolescents in the United States. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers Press.
9.
Bassuk, E.L. (1988). Redefining transitional housing for homeless families . Yale Law & Policy Review, 6(287), 209-230.
Bassuk, E.L., & Harvey, M.R. (1990). Family homelessness: Recommendations for a comprehensive policy response. In E. Bassuk, R. W. Carmen, & L. F. Weinreb (Eds.), Community care for homeless families: A program design manual (pp. 13-16). Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless.
12.
Bassuk, E.L., & Lauriat, A. (1986). Are emergency shelters the solution? International Journal of Mental Health, 14, 125-136.
13.
Bassuk, E.L. & Rubin, L. (1987). Homeless children: A neglected population. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 279-286.
14.
Belcher, J.R. (1988). Rights versus needs of homeless mentally ill persons . Social Work, 33, 398-402.
15.
Belcher, J.R. (1992). Poverty, homelessness, and racial exclusion. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, XIX(4), 41-54.
16.
Benda, B.B. (1990). Crime, drug abuse and mental illness: A comparison of homeless men and women. Journal of Social Service Research , 13(3), 39-60.
17.
Blankertz, L.E., & Cnaan, R.A. (1992a). Principles of care for dually-diagnosed homeless: Findings from a demonstration project. Research on Social Work Practice, 2, 448-464.
18.
Blankertz, L.E., & Cnaan, R.A. (1992b). Serving the dually-diagnosed homeless: Program development and interventions. Journal of Mental Health Administration , 20, 100-112.
19.
Blankertz, L.E., & Cnaan, R.A. (in press). Assessing the impact of two residential programs for dually-diagnosed homeless individuals. Social Service Review.
20.
Blankertz, L.E., Cnaan, R.A., & Freedman, E. (1993). Childhood risk factors in dually diagnosed homeless adults. Social Work, 38, 587-596.
21.
Blankertz, L.E., Cnaan, R.A., & Saunders, M. (1992). Assessing the impact of serving the long-term mentally disabled homeless. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 19, 199-220.
22.
Blankertz, L.E., Cnaan, R.A., White, K.W., Fox, J., & Messinger, K. (1990). Outreach efforts with dually-diagnosed homeless persons. Families in Society, 71, 387-397.
23.
Blasi, G.L. (1990). Social policy and social science research on homelessness . Journal of Social Issues, 46, 207-219.
24.
Bogue, D.J. (1963). Skid row in American cities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
25.
Brickner, P. W., Scharer, L. K., Conanan, B. A., Savarese, M., & Scanlan, B. C. (Eds.). (1990). Under the safety net: The health and social welfare of the homeless in the United States. New York: Norton.
26.
Brown, K.S., & Ziefert, M. (1990). A feminist approach to working with homeless women . Affilia, 5, 6-20.
27.
Browne, A. (1990). Family violence and homelessness. In E. Bassuk, R. W. Carmen, & L. F. Weinreb (Eds.), Community care for homeless families: A program design manual (pp. 119-128). Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless .
28.
Burt, M., & Cohen, B. (1988). Feeding the homeless: Does the prepared meals provision work? Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
29.
Burt, M., & Cohen, M.R. (1989). America's homeless: Numbers, characteristics, and programs that serve them. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
30.
Cassidy, C. (1990). Housing programs for homeless families. In E. Bassuk, R. W. Carmen, & L. F. Weinreb (Eds.), Community care for homeless families: Program design manual (pp. 33-53). Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless .
31.
Center for Mental Health Services. (1994). Making a difference: Interim status report of the McKinney Research Demonstration Program for homeless mentally ill adults. Rockville, MD: Author.
32.
Chaiklin, H. (1984, 31 July). Welfare use and soup kitchen. Paper presented at the 24th National Workshop on Welfare Research and Statistics, Washington, DC.
33.
Chavkin, W., Kristal, A., Seabron, C., & Guigli, P.E. (1987). The reproductive experience of women living in hotels for the homeless in New York City. New YorkState Journal of Medicine, 87, 10-13.
34.
Clark, M.E., & Rafferty, M. (1985). The sickness that won't heal: Health care for the Nation's homeless. Health PAC Bulletin, 16, 20-28.
35.
Cohen, M.B. (1989). Social work practice with homeless mentally ill people: Engaging the client. Social Work, 34, 505-509.
36.
Cohen, B.E., & Burt, M.R. (1990). The homeless: Chemical dependency and mental health problems. Social Work Research & Abstracts, 26, 8-17.
37.
Cohen, C.I., & Sokolovsky, J. (1989). Old men of the Bowery: Strategies for survival among the homeless. New York: Guilford.
38.
Cohen, N.L., & Sullivan, A.M. (1990). Strategies of intervention and service coordination by mobile outreach teams. In N. L. Cohen (Ed.), Psychiatry takes to the streets: Outreach and crisis intervention for the mentally ill (pp. 63-79). New York: Guilford.
39.
Cohen, C.I., Teresi, J., & Holmes, D. (1988). The mental health of old homeless men. Journal of the American Genatric Society, 36, 492-501.
40.
Cohen, C.I., Teresi, J., Holmes, D. & Roth, E. (1988). Survival strategies of older homeless men. The Gerontologist, 58, 58-65.
41.
Comfort, M., Shipley, T.E., White, K., Griffith, E.M., & Shandler, I.W. (1990). Family treatment for homeless alcohol/drug-addicted women and their preschool children. In M. Argeriou & D. McCarty (Eds.), Treating alcoholism and drug abuse among the homeless: Nine community demonstration grants (pp. 129-147). Binghamton, NY: Haworth.
42.
Community Service Society of New York. (1984 ). Saving homes for the poor: Low income tenants can own their own apartments. New York: Author .
43.
Cousineau, M.R., Casanova, M., & Erlenbusch, R. (1992). Case management for homeless families: An integrated multi-disciplinary approach. In D. Wood (Ed.), Delivering health care to homeless persons (pp. 30-46). New York: Springer .
44.
Culhane, D.P. (1990). On becoming homeless: The structural and experiential dynamics of residential instability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Boston College.
45.
Culhane, D.P. (1992). The quandaries of shelter reform: An appraisal of efforts to "manage" homelessness. Social Service Review , 66, 428-440.
46.
Culhane, D.P., Dejowski, E.F., Ibanez, J., Needham, E. & Macchia, I. (1994). Public shelter admission rates in Philadelphia and New York City: The implications of turnover for sheltered population counts. Housing Policy Debates, 5, 107-140.
47.
Davis, L.V., & Hagen, J.L. (1988). Services for battered women: The public policy response. Social Service Review, 62, 649-667.
48.
Dennis, D.L. (1987). Research methodologies concerning homeless persons with serious mental illness and/or substance abuse disorders. Rockville, MD: Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration.
49.
D'Ercole, A., & Struening, E. (1990). Victimization among homeless women: Implications for service delivery. Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 141-152.
50.
Doolin, J., (1986). Planning for the special needs of the homeless elderly. The Gerontologist, 26, 229-231.
51.
Drake, R.E., & Osher, F.C. (1991). Homelessness and dual diagnosis. American Psychologist, 46, 1149-1158.
52.
Drake, R.E., Wallach, M.A., & Hoffman, J.S. (1989). Housing instability and homelessness among aftercare patients of an urban state hospital. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 46-51.
53.
Dupper, D.R., & Halter, A.P. (1994). Barriers in educating children from homeless shelters: Perspectives of school and shelter staff. Social Work in Education, 16, 39-45.
54.
Eddowes, A., & Hranitz, J. (1989). Childhood education: Infancy through early adolescence . Journal of the Association for Childhood Education International , 65, 197-200.
55.
Fabricant, M. (1988). Beyond bed and board: Teaching about homelessness . Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 2, 113-130.
56.
Fabricant, M., & Epstein, I. (1984). Legal and welfare rights advocacy: Complementary approaches in organizing on behalf of the homeless. Urban and Social Change Review, 17, 15-19.
57.
Farr, R.K. (1984). The Los Angeles Skid Row Mental Health Project . Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 8, 64-76.
58.
Fellin, P., & Brown, K.S. (1989). Application of homelessness to teaching social work foundation content. Journal of Teaching in Social Work , 3, 17-33.
59.
First, R.J., Rife, J.C., & Toomey, B.G. (1994). Homeless in rural areas: Causes, patterns, and trends. Social Work, 39, 97-107.
60.
First, R.J., Roth, D., & Arewa, B.D. (1988). Homelessness: Understanding the dimensions of the problem for minorities. Social Work, 34, 120-124.
61.
First, R.J., & , Toomey, B.G. (1989). Homeless men and the work ethic. Social Service Review, 63, 113-126.
62.
Fischer, P.J. (1988). Criminal activity among the homeless: A study of arrests in Baltimore. Hospital and Community Psychiatry , 39, 46-51.
63.
Fischer, P.J. (1989). Estimating the prevalence of alcohol, drug, and mental health problems in the contemporary homeless population: A review of the literature. Contemporary Drug Problems, 16, 333-389.
64.
Fischer, P.J., & Breakey, W.R. (1987). Profile of the Baltimore homeless with alcohol problems. Alcohol, Health, & Research World, 11(3), 36-37, 61.
65.
Fischer, P.J., & Breakey, W.R. (1991). The epidemiology of alcohol, drug, and mental disorders among homeless persons. American Psychologist, 46, 1115-1128.
66.
Freeman, R.B., & Hall, B. (1987). Permanent homelessness in America? Population Research Policy Review, 6, 3-27.
67.
Fox, S.J., Barrnett, R.J., Davies, M., & Bird, H.R. (1990). Psychopathology and developmental delay in homeless children: A pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 732-735.
68.
Garrett, G.R. (1989). Alcohol problems and homelessness: History and research. Contemporary Drug Problems, 16, 301-332.
69.
Gewirtzman, R., & Fodor, I. (1987). The homeless child at school: From welfare hotel to classroom. Child Welfare, LXVI, 237-245.
70.
Goodman, L. (1991). The prevalence of abuse in the lives of homeless and housed mothers: A comparison study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 489-500.
71.
Gross, T.P., & Rosenberg, M.L. (1987). Shelters for battered women and their children: An under-recognized source of communicable disease transmission . American Journal of Public Health, 77, 1198-1201.
72.
Hagen, J.L., & Hutchison, E. (1988). Who's serving the homeless? Social Casework, 69, 491-497.
73.
Hartman, C., & Zigas, B. (1991). What is wrong with the housing market? In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar, (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 175-193). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
74.
Haskins, R. (1989). Beyond metaphor: The efficacy of early childhood education. American Psychologist, 44, 276-282.
75.
Henry, M.E. (1987). Voluntary shelters for the homeless as a population of organizations: A study of classical charity as an alternative to bureaucratic professional models. Dissertation Abstracts International , 48(04), 1016A.
76.
Higgins, J.G. (1978). Social services for abused wives. Social Casework, 59, 266-271.
77.
Hoch, C., & Slayton, R.A. (1989). New homelessness and old: Community and the skid row hotel. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
78.
Hoff, M.D., Briar, K.H., Knighton, K., & Van Ry, A. (1992). To survive and to thrive: Services for the homeless mentally ill. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 19, 235-252.
79.
Hombs, M.E. & Snyder, M. (1982). Homelessness in America: A forced march to nowhere . Washington, DC: Community for Creative Non-Violence.
80.
Hopper, K. (1989). Deviance and dwelling space: Notes on the resettlement of homeless persons with alcohol and drug problems. Contemporary Drug Problems, 16, 391-414.
81.
Housing Assistance Council. (1987). The homeless crisis from a rural perspective. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
82.
Huebner, R.B., & Crosse, S.B. (1991). Challenges in evaluating a national demonstration program for homeless persons with alcohol and other drug problems. In: D. J. Rog (Ed.), Evaluating programs for the homeless (pp. 33-46). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
83.
Hutchison, W.J., Searight, P.R., & Stretch, J.J. (1988). Multidimensional networking: A response to the needs of homeless families. Social Work, 31, 427-430.
84.
Huttman, E., & Redmond, S. (1992). Women and homelessness: Evidence of need to look beyond shelters to long term social service assistance and permanent housing . Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 19, 89-111.
85.
Institute of Medicine (1988). Homelessness, health, and human needs. Committee on Health Care for Homeless People. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
86.
Interagency Council on the Homeless (1992). Outcasts on Main Street: A report of the Federal Task Force on Homelessness and Severe Mental Illness. Washington, DC: Author.
87.
Interagency Council on the Homeless (1994). Priority home! The federal plan to break the cycle of homelessness. Washington, DC: Author.
88.
Janus, M.D., Burgess, A.W., & McCormack, A. (1987). Adolescent runaways: Causes and consequences . Lexington, MA: Lexington Books .
89.
Jencks, C. (1994). The homeless. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.
90.
Johnson, A.K. (1989a). Female-headed homeless families: A comparative profile. Affilia, 4, 23-39.
91.
Johnson, A.K. (1989b). Measurement and methodology: Problems and issues in research on homelessness. Social Work Research & Abstracts , 25, 12-26.
92.
Johnson, A.K. (1990). Homeless shelter services in St. Louis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(12), 4276A. (University Microfilms No. AUTHOR: Please provide).
93.
Johnson, A.K. (1992). Urban redevelopment law and the loss of affordable housing: A reassessment. Journal of Law and Social Work, 3, 29-43.
94.
Johnson, A.K. (1994a). Homelessness policy in the United States. Journal of Social Policy and Administration, 28, 185-196.
95.
Johnson, A.K. (1994b). Linking professionalism and community organization: A scholar/ advocate approach. Journal of Community Practice: Organizing, Planning, Development, and Change, 2(2), 65-86.
96.
Johnson, A.K. (1995). Homelessness. Encyclopedia of social work, 19th Edition (pp. 1338-1346). Washington, DC : National Association of Social Workers Press.
97.
Johnson, A.K., & Banerjee, M. (1992). Purchase of service contracts for the homeless: The development of a city-wide network. Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 16, 129-141.
98.
Johnson, A.K., & Castengera, A.R. (in press). Integrated program development: A model for meeting the complex needs of homeless persons. Journal of Community Practice: Organization, Planning, Development, and Change .
99.
Johnson, A.K., & Kreuger, L.W. (1989). Toward a better understanding of homeless women . Social Work, 34, 537-540.
100.
Johnson, A.K., Kreuger, L.W., & Stretch, J.J. (1989). A court-ordered consent decree for the homeless: Process, conflict and control. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 16(3), 29-42.
101.
Johnson, A.K., & Lee, J.A.B. (1994). Empowerment work with homeless women. In M. P. Mirkin (Ed.), Treating women in their social contexts: A feminist reconstruction (pp. 408-432). New York: Guilford.
102.
Johnson, A.K., & Richards, R.N. (in press). Homeless women and feminist social work practice. In N. Van Den Bergh (Ed.), Feminist practice in the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers Press.
103.
Johnson, A.K., Rocha, C.J., McChesney, K.Y., & Butterfield, W.H. (1994). Comparing sheltered homeless families with housed poor families. Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve University. Unpublished paper.
104.
Johnson, A.K., & Sherraden, M. (1992). Asset-based social welfare policy: Homeownership for the poor. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 19(3), 65-83.
105.
Keigher, S.M., Berman, R.H., & Greenblatt, S. (1989). Relocation, residence & risk: A study of housing risks and the causes of homelessness among the urban elderly. Chicago: Metropolitan Chicago Coalition on Aging.
106.
Kelly, J.T. (1985). Trauma: With the example of San Francisco's shelter programs. In P. W. Brickner, L. K. Scharer, B. Conanan , A. Elvy, & M. Savarese (Eds.), Health care of homeless people (pp. 77-91). New York: Springer .
107.
Knickman, J.R. & Weitzman, B.C. (1989). Homeless families in New York City: Assessment of factors that increase risk of shelter use. New York: Urban Research Center, New York University .
108.
Koch, J.Q. (1987). The federal role in aiding the homeless. In R. D. Bingham, R. E. Green, & S. B. White, (Eds.), The homeless in contemporary society (pp. 21-55). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
109.
Koegel, P., & Burnam, M.A. (1988). Alcoholism among homeless adults in the inner-city of Los Angeles. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1011-1018.
110.
Kondratas, A. (1991). Estimates and public policy: The politics of numbers . Housing Policy Debate, 2, 631-647.
111.
Kozol, J. (1988). Rachel and her children. New York: Fawcett Columbine.
112.
Kroner, M.J. (1988). Living arrangement options for young people preparing for independent living. Child Welfare, 67, 547-561.
113.
Lamb, H.R. (1984). Deinstitutionalization and the homeless mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 35, 899-904.
114.
Lamb, H.R., & Lamb, D.M. (1990). Factors contributing to homelessness among the chronically and severely mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41, 301-305.
115.
Lang, M.H. (1989). Homeless amid affluence: Structure and paradox in the American political system. New York: Praeger.
116.
Lee, B.A., Link, B.G., & Toro, P.A. (1991). Images of the homeless: Public views and media messages. Housing Policy Debate, 2, 649-682.
117.
Lee, J.A.B. (1991). Empowerment through mutual aid groups: A practice grounded conceptual framework. Groupwork, 4, 5-21.
118.
Levitan, S., & Schillmoeller, S. (1991). The paradox of homelessness in America. Washington, DC: George Washington University Press.
119.
Liebow, E. (1993). Tell them who I am: The lives of homeless women . New York: Free Press.
120.
Linn, L.S., Gelberg, L., & Leake, B. (1990). Substance abuse and mental health status of homeless and domiciled low-income users of medical clinic. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41, 306-310.
121.
Lubran, B.G. (1990). Alcohol and drug abuse among the homeless population: A national response. In M. Argeriou & D. McCarty (Eds.), Treating alcoholism and drug abuse among the homeless: Nine community demonstration grants (pp. 11-23). Binghamton, NY: Haworth.
122.
Mair, A. (1986). The homeless and the postindustrial city. Political Geography Quarterly, 5, 351-368.
123.
Mancoske, R.J., & Lindhorst T. (1991). Mutual assistance groups in a shelter for persons with AIDS. Social Work with Groups, 14(2), 75-86.
124.
Mangine, S.J., Royse, D., Wiehi, V.R., & Nietzel, W. (1990). Homelessness among adults raised as foster children: A survey of drop-in center users. Psychological Reports, 67, 739-745.
125.
Martin, M.A. (1990). The homeless mentally ill and community based care: Changing a mindset. Community Mental Health Journal , 26, 435-447.
126.
Martin, V.M., & Vacha, E.F. (1994). Self-help strategies and resources among people at risk of homelessness: Empirical findings and social services policy. Social Work, 39, 649-657.
127.
McCarty, D., Argeriou, M., Huebner, R.B., & Lubran, B. (1991). Alcoholism, drug abuse, and the homeless. American Psychologist, 46, 1139-1148.
128.
McChesney, K. Y (1990). Family homelessness: A systemic approach. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 191-205.
129.
McChesney, K.Y. (1991). Macroeconomics issues in poverty: Implications for child and youth homelessness. In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 143-173). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
130.
McNally, E., & Wood, J. (1992). Obstetrical care and family planning for homeless women. In D. Wood (Ed.), Delivering health care to homeless persons (pp. 181-195). New York: Springer.
131.
McShane, C. (1979). Community services for battered women. Social Work, 24, 37-41.
132.
Mihaly, L. (1991). Beyond the numbers: Homeless families with children . In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar, (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 11-32). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
133.
Miller, D., & Lin, E. (1988). Children in sheltered homeless families: Reported health status and use of health services. Pediatrics, 75, 668-673.
134.
Mills, C., & Ota, H. (1989). Homeless women with minor children in the Detroit metropolitan area. Social Work, 34, 485-489.
135.
Morse, G., Muether, R.O., Harmann, L., Calsyn, R.J., & Dannelet, M. (1989). Community services for the homeless: Preliminary experimental results. Unpublished manuscript.
136.
Moos, R.H., Mehren, B., & Moos B.S. (1978). Evaluation of a Salvation Army alcoholism treatment program. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 39, 1267-1275.
137.
Mowbray, C.T., Cohen, E., & Bybee, D. (1991). Services to individuals who are homeless and mentally ill: Implementation evaluation. In D. J. Rog (Ed.), Evaluating programs for the homeless (pp. 75-90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
138.
Moxley, D.P., & Freddolino, P.P. (1991). Needs of homeless people coping with psychiatric problems: Findings from an innovative advocacy project . Health and Social Work, 16, 19-26.
139.
National Alliance to End Homelessness. (1988). Housing and homelessness: A report of the National Alliance to End Homelessness. Washington, DC: Author.
140.
National Coalition for the Homeless. (1993 ). Income tax assistance for homeless people: Significant expansion of EITC will benefit poor workers. Safety Network , 12(5), 4.
141.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (1991). A guide to housing for low-income people recovering from alcohol and other drug problems. Rockville, MD: Author.
142.
National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty. (1992a). Census Bureau excluded homeless persons, suit charges. In Just Times, 3(11), 1-2.
143.
National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty. (1992b). Social security fails to deliver. In Just Times, 3(4), 1-2.
144.
National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty. (1993). Anti-homeless laws, challenges continue. In Just Yimes, 4(1), 1-2.
145.
Newman, S.J., & Schnare, A.B. (1988). Subsidizing shelter: The relationship between welfare and housing assistance. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
146.
Nooe, R.M. (1991). Knoxville-Knox County Community Action Committee Job Training for the homeless demonstration program (Final evaluation report . Knoxville, TN: Community Action Committee.
147.
Nooe, R.M., & Cunningham, M.L. (1992). Rural dimensions of homelessness: A rural-urban comparison. Human Services in the Rural Environment , 15(4), 1-5.
148.
North, C.S., & Smith, E.M. (1994). Comparison of white and nonwhite homeless men and women. Social Work, 39, 639-647.
149.
Nunez, R.D. (1994). Hopes, dreams, and promise: Thefuture of homeless children in America. New York: Institute for Children and Poverty, Home for the Homeless.
150.
Parsons, R.J., Hernandez, S.H., & Jorgensen, J.D. (1988). Integrated practice: A framework for problem solving. Social Work, 33, 417-421.
151.
Patton, L. (1988). The rural homeless. In Committee on Health Care for Homeless People (Ed.), Homelessness, health, and human needs (pp. 183-217). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
152.
Pawlak, E.L., Skurski, M., Creamer, D., Gundy, J., & Bishop, A. (1985). A view from the mall. Social Service Review, 59, 305-317.
153.
Phillips, M.H., DeChillo, N., Kronenfeld, D., & Middleton-Jeter, V. (1988). Homeless families: Services make a difference. Social Casework, 69, 48-53.
154.
Piliavin, I., Westerfelt, H., & Elliott, E. (1989). Estimating mental illness among the homeless: The effects of choice-based sampling. Social Problems, 36, 525-531.
155.
Pines, S.G. (1990). Employment strategies for homeless families. In E. Bassuk, R. W. Carmen, & L. F. Weinreb (Eds.), Community care for homeless families: A program design manual (pp. 45-65). Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless .
156.
Porter, K. (1989). Poverty in rural America: A national overview . Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
157.
Rafferty, Y. (1991). Developmental and educational consequences of homelessness on children and youth. In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 105-139). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
158.
Rafferty, Y., & Rollins, N. (1989). Learning in limbo: The educational deprivation of homeless children. New York: Advocates for Children of New York.
159.
Reamer, F.G. (1989). The affordable housing crisis and social work . Social Work, 34, 5-9.
160.
Redburn, F., & Buss, T. (1986). Responding to America's homeless. New York: Praeger.
161.
Rescorla, L., Parker, R., & Stolley, P. (1991). Ability, achievement, and adjustment in homeless children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 210-220.
162.
Reyes, L.M., & Waxman, L.D. (1989). A status report on hunger and homelessness in America's cities, 1989: 27-city survey. Washington, DC : U.S. Conference of Mayors.
163.
Richards, R.N. (1993). This is my story: A homeless children's program for developing self-esteem, literacy and school readiness. New Haven, CT: New Haven Home Recovery. Unpublished paper.
164.
Robertson, M.J. (1991a). Homeless women with children: The role of alcohol and other drug abuse. American Psychologist, 46, 1198-1204.
165.
Robertson, M.J. (1991b). Homeless youth: An overview of the literature . In J. J. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar, (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 33-68). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
166.
Robertson, M.J., Koegel, P., & Ferguson, L. (1989). Alcohol use and abuse among homeless adolescents in Hollywood. Contemporary Drug Problems, 16, 415-452.
167.
Rog, D.J. (1991). The evaluation of the homeless families program: Challenges in implementing a nine-city evaluation. In D. J. Rog (Ed.), Evaluation programs for the homeless (pp. 47-59). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
168.
Rooney, J. (1980). Organizational success through program failure: Skid row rescue missions. Social Forces, 58, 904-924.
169.
Rosenheck, R., Leda, C., & Gallup, P. (1989). Initial assessment data from a 43-site program for homeless chronic mentally ill veterans. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 937-943.
170.
Rossi, P.H. (1989). Down and out in America: The origins ofhomelessness . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
171.
Roth, D., & Bean, G. (1986). New perspectives on homelessness: Findings from a statewide epidemiological study. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37, 712-719.
172.
Rotberam-Borus, M.J., & Koopman, C. (1991). Sexual risk behaviors, AIDS knowledge, and beliefs about AIDS among runaways. American Journal of Public Health , 81, 712-719.
173.
Rothman, J. (1989). Intervention research: Application to runaway and homeless youths. Social Work Research & Abstracts , 25, 13-18.
174.
Rothman, J. (1991). Runaway & homeless youth: Strengthening services to families and children. New York: Longman.
175.
Russell, S.C., & Williams, E.U. (1988). Homeless handicapped children: A special education perspective. Children's Environmental Quarterly, 5, 3-7.
176.
Ryan, P., Goldstein, I., & Bartlet, D. (1989). Homelessness in Pennsylvania: How can this be ? Philadelphia: Institute for Public Policy Studies, Temple University.
177.
Ryback, R., & Bassuk, E.L. (1986). Homeless battered women and their shelter network . In E. L. Bassuk (Ed.), The mental health needs of homeless persons (pp. 55-70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
178.
Sachs, J. (1991). Action and reflection in work with a group of homeless people. Social Work with Groups, 14, 187-202.
179.
Schutt, R.K. (1992). Homeless persons' interest in basic and health services: The role of absolute, relative, and repressed needs. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 19, 221-233.
180.
Segal, E. (1989). Homelessness in a small community: A demographic profile. Social Work Research & Abstracts, 25(4), 27-30.
181.
Shinn, M., Knickman, J.R., Ward, D., Petrovic, N.L., & Muth, B.J. (1990). Alternative models for sheltering homeless families . Journal of Social Issues, 46, 175-190.
182.
Shinn, M., Knickman, J., & Weitzman, B.C. (1991). Social relationships and vulnerability to becoming homeless among poor families. American Psychologist, 46, 1180-1187.
183.
Shinn, M., & Weitzman, B.C. (1990). Research on homelessness: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 1-11.
184.
Shlay, A.B., & Rossi, P.H. (1992). Social science research and contemporary studies of homelessness. Annual Review of Sociology, 18, 129-160.
185.
Simmons, R.L., & Wheitback, L.B. (1991). Running away during adolescence as a precursor to adult homelessness. Social Service Review , 65, 224-247.
186.
Smith, E.M. , & North, C.S. (1994). Not all homeless women are alike: Effects of motherhood and the presence of children. Community Mental Health Journal , 30, 601-610.
187.
Smith, M.H. (1992). Preventive medical care for homeless men and women . In D. Wood (Ed.), Delivering health care to homeless persons (pp. 47-60). New York: Springer.
188.
Snow, D.A., Baker, S.G., & Anderson, L. (1989). Criminality and homeless men: An empirical assessment . Social Problems, 36, 532-549.
189.
Solomon, P. (1988). Services to severely mentally disabled homeless persons and the emergency food and shelter providers. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 12, 3-13.
190.
Solomon, P.L., Draine, J.N., Marcenko, M.O., & Meyerson, A.T. (1992). Homelessness in a mentally ill urban jail population. Hospital and Community Psychiatry , 43, 169-171.
191.
Sosin, M.R., Colson, P., & Grossman, S. (1988). Homelessness in Chicago: Poverty and pathology, social institutions, and social change. Chicago: Chicago Community Trust.
192.
Srinivasan, M., & Davis, L.V. (1991). A shelter: An organization like any other? Affilia, 6, 38-57.
193.
Stanford Center for the Study of Families, Children, and Youth. (1991). The Stanford studies of homeless families, children, and youth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
194.
Stark, L. (1987). A century of alcohol and homelessness. Alcohol Health & Research World, 11(3), 8-13.
195.
Stegman, M.A., Quercia, R., McCarthy, G.W., Foster, M., & Rohe, W. (1991). Designing better homeownership assistance programs using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID): An exploratory analysis . Journal of Housing Research, 2, 39-85.
196.
Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act. (1987). Pub. L. No. 100-77, codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 11301-11472.
197.
Stoner, M.R. (1983). The plight of homeless women. Social Service Review, 57, 565-581.
198.
Stoner, M.R. (1988). The voluntary sector leads the way in delivering health care to the homeless. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 17, 24-35.
199.
Stoner, M.R. (1989a). Beyond shelter: Policy directions for the prevention of homelessness. Social Work Research & Abstracts, 25(4), 7-11.
200.
Stoner, M.R. (1989b). Money management services for the homeless mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 751-753.
201.
Stretch, J.J., & Kreuger, L.W. (1992). Five year cohort study of homeless families: Ajoint policy research venture. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 19(4), 73-88.
202.
Surber, R.W., Dwyer, E., Ryan, K.J., Goldfinger, S.M., & Kelly, J.T. (1988). Medical and psychiatric needs of the homeless—A preliminary response. Social Work, 33, 116-119.
203.
Susser, E., Struening, E.L., & Conover, S. (1987). Childhood experiences of homeless men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1599-1601.
204.
Swanstrom, T. (1989). No room at the inn: Housing policy and the homeless . Journal of Urban Contemporary Law, 35, 81-108.
205.
Tessler, M., & Dennis, D. (1989). A synthesis of NIMH-funded research concerning persons who are homeless and mentally ill. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health.
206.
Toro, P.A., & Mcdonell, D.M. (1992). Beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about homelessness: A survey of the general public. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 53-80.
207.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1991, April 12). Bureau of the Census, press release. Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, p. 2.
208.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). (1984). A report to the secretary on the homeless and emergency shelters. Office of Policy Development and Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
209.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). (1989a). A report on the 1988 national survey of shelters for the homeless. Office of Policy Development and Research, Division of Policy Studies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
210.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (1989b). A report on homeless assistance policy and practice in the nation's five largest cities. Office of Policy Development and Research, Division of Policy Studies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
211.
U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1988 ). Homeless mentally ill: Problems and options in estimating numbers and trends. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
212.
U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1990 ). Homelessness: McKinney Act Programs and funding for fiscal year 1989. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
213.
Weicksnar, B. (1988). The Cleveland Housing Network. Urban Land, 47(4), 2-5.
214.
Weinreb, L. (1992). Preventive medical care for homeless men and women . In D. Wood (Ed.), Delivering health care to homeless persons (pp. 61-75). New York: Springer.
215.
Wheeler, M. (1986). Runaway prey: Reaching the homeless teen. Social Welfare, 2, 10-15.
216.
Whitman, B.Y., Accardo, P., Boyert, M., & Kendagor, R. (1990). Homelessness and cognitive performance in children: A possible link. Social Work, 35, 516-519.
217.
Wittman, F.D. (1987). Alcohol, architecture, and homelessness. Alcohol Health & Research World, 11(3), 74-79.
218.
Wolch, J.R., Dear, M., & Akita, A. (1988). Explaining homelessness. Journal of the American Planning Society, 54, 443-453.
219.
Wolf, L.A. (1991). The welfare system's response to homelessness . In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar, (Eds.). Homeless children and youth (pp. 271-284). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
220.
Wood, D. (Ed.). (1992). Delivering health care to homeless persons. New York: Springer.
221.
Wood, D., Ciborowski, J., Ojena, B., & Schooler, N. (1990). Education of homeless children and youth: Problems and interventions. In E. Bassuk, R. W. Carmen, & L. F. Weinreb (Eds.), Community care for homeless families: A program design manual (pp. 111-117). Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless.
222.
Wood, D., Valdez, B., Hayashi, T., & Shen, A. (1990). Homeless and housed families in Los Angeles: A study comparing demographic, economic, and family function characteristics . American Journal of Public Health, 80, 1049-1052.
223.
Wright, J.D. (1988). The worthy and unworthy homeless. Society, 25, 64-69.
224.
Wright, J.D. (1990a). Homelessness is not healthy for children and other living things. In N. A. Boxill (Ed). Homeless children: The watchers and the waiters (pp. 65-88). New York: Haworth.
225.
Wright, J.D. (1990b). Poor people, poor health: The health status of the homeless. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 49-64.
226.
Wright, J.D. (1991). Poverty, homelessness, health, nutrition, and children. In J. J. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar (Eds.), Homeless children and youth (pp. 71-103). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
227.
Wright, J.D., & Lam, J. (1987). Homelessness and the low income housing supply . Social Policy, 17, 48-53.
228.
Wright, J.D., & Weber, E. (1987). Homelessness and health. Washington, DC: McGraw-Hill.
229.
Wright, J.D., & Weber, E. (1988). Determinants of benefit-program participation among the urban homeless. Evaluation Review, 12, 376-395.
230.
Yates, G., MacKenzie, R., Pennbridge, J., & Cohen, E. (1988). A risk profile comparison of runaway and nonrunaway youth. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 820-821.
231.
Ziefert, M., & Brown, K.S. (1991). Skill building for effective intervention with homeless families. Families in Society, 72, 212-219.
232.
Ziesemer, C., & Marcoux, L. (1992). Academic and emotional needs of homeless students . Social Work in Education, 14, 77-83.
233.
Ziesemer, C., Marcoux, L., & Marwell, B.E. (1994). Homeless children: Are they different from other low-income children? Social Work, 39, 658-668.
234.
Zorza, J. (1991). Women battering: A major cause of homelessness . Clearinghouse Review, 25, 421-429.
