The Impact of Postsecondary Education and Career Services on Competitive Integrated Employment for Adults Who Are Blind or Have a Visual Impairment

Abstract

Background

Adults who are blind or have a visual impairment (BVI) continue to experience significantly lower rates of competitive integrated employment (CIE) than their peers without disabilities. Postsecondary education and vocational rehabilitation (VR) career services are important supports, yet their combined influence on CIE for individuals with BVI has not been examined using recent national data.

Objective

This study identifies factors associated with CIE among prime working-age adults with BVI by examining demographic and socioeconomic factors, postsecondary education, and VR career services.

Methods

Secondary analysis of U.S. Rehabilitation Services Administration Case Service Report data from PY 2022–2023 was conducted. The sample included 7,956 adults ages 25–54 with BVI who received VR services. Hierarchical logistic regression assessed variables associated with CIE in three steps: demographic and socioeconomic variables; postsecondary education; and VR career services.

Results

Overall, 52.4 percent of participants achieved CIE. Postsecondary education nearly doubled employment odds. VR career services, including counseling, job placement, short-term supports, and supported employment, were strongly associated with employment, while long-term unemployment, low income, SSI/SSDI receipt, and secondary disability decreased the likelihood of employment.

Conclusions

Postsecondary education and individualized VR services are jointly associated with higher CIE outcomes. Expanding access to intensive career services may further strengthen employment pathways.

Keywords

blindness vision disorders vocational rehabilitation employment postsecondary education career services

Introduction

Employment is a fundamental pathway to independence and well-being for people with disabilities. Yet individuals who are blind or have a visual impairment (BVI) continue to experience disproportionately low rates of competitive integrated employment (CIE) compared to their peers without disabilities. Recent national data indicate that only 52.3% of adults with BVI were employed in 2023, compared to 76.4% of adults without disabilities (Cornell University Yang-Tan Institute on Employment and Disability, n.d.). Despite decades of investment in vocational rehabilitation (VR) services and disability employment policies, these disparities have remained persistent (Bell, 2012; Clapp et al., 2020; Lund & Cmar, 2019). Labor force participation underscores this disparity, with only 44% of adults with visual impairments participating in the labor force compared to 75% of the general population (American Foundation for the Blind, 2024). Limited access to CIE contributes to disproportionately high poverty rates and restricts independence, community participation, and overall quality of life for individuals with BVI (Cimera et al., 2015; Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016; McDonnall, 2011).

A range of demographic and individual factors are related to employment outcomes for people with BVI. Education and prior work experience consistently improve employment prospects (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012; Lund & Cmar, 2019), while gender, race, and secondary disability status remain strongly associated with disparity. For example, having a secondary disability significantly reduces the likelihood of achieving CIE (Cimera et al., 2015; Lund & Cmar, 2019). Racial inequities are also evident: White consumers with BVI achieve higher rates of employment than African American and other minority groups (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2013; McDonnall, 2011), reflecting broader patterns of structural inequality (Dutta et al., 2008). Gender differences, though less consistent, have also been reported (Darensbourg, 2013). In 2023, employment rates for working-age adults with BVI were 53.4% for men and 49.7% for women, suggesting an advantage for males (Cornell University Yang-Tan Institute on Employment and Disability, n.d.).

Socioeconomic disadvantages further compound these inequities, creating a cycle that limits access to CIE. Long-term unemployment reduces the likelihood of reemployment, as individuals may lose skills, networks, and confidence in their employability (Bell, 2012; Clapp et al., 2020). Low-income status similarly restricts access to resources such as transportation, assistive technology, and postsecondary education, all of which are critical for workforce participation (Cimera et al., 2015; Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016). For VR consumers, receipt of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) or Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) is associated with lower rates of CIE, reflecting disincentives embedded in public benefit structures (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2013; Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016). These socioeconomic barriers not only constrain immediate employment outcomes but also perpetuate cycles of poverty and dependency, making them essential baseline factors when examining employment for individuals with BVI (Bell & Mino, 2015; Lund & Cmar, 2019).

Importance of Postsecondary Education

Postsecondary education is a strong and consistent correlate of better employment outcomes for people with disabilities. Higher education is linked to greater job opportunities, higher earnings, and improved job quality (Collard, 2021; Li et al., 2023; Lindsay et al., 2016; Lund & Cmar, 2019; McDonnall et al., 2023; Sannicandro et al., 2018). Postsecondary credentials expand career options, reduce dependence on low-skill jobs, and support greater independence and quality of life (Cimera et al., 2015). For individuals with BVI, postsecondary education is especially critical because vision loss limits access to occupations requiring visual or manual labor. Higher education opens pathways to careers where visual functioning is less central and can help counter barriers such as employer bias and limited labor market access (Bell & Mino, 2015; Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012; McDonnall, 2011). Employment rates increase markedly with education: only 26.2% of individuals with less than a high school diploma are employed, compared to 62.5% of those with a college degree (McDonnall & Tatch, 2021). However, people with BVI remain less likely than their peers without disabilities to earn postsecondary credentials. Only 14–19.3% hold a bachelor's degree or higher, compared to 34–39.2% of adults without disabilities (McDonnall & Tatch, 2021). This educational gap contributes to persistent employment disparities. Although higher education narrows the employment gap, it does not fully eliminate it, underscoring its protective role in workforce participation. Prior analyses of RSA-911 data consistently identify education as a key factor of CIE among VR consumers (Clapp et al., 2020; Lund & Cmar, 2019), yet few studies have explored its impact specifically for individuals with BVI. Addressing this gap is essential to understanding how education promotes meaningful, long-term employment for this population.

Vocational Rehabilitation Career Services

State VR agencies provide career services that are central to advancing CIE for individuals with disabilities. These services (such as vocational counseling, job placement, short-term supports, and supported employment) help reduce barriers, strengthen employability, and support long-term workforce participation (Leahy et al., 2018; Rehabilitation Services Administration, n.d.). For individuals with BVI, they are especially vital, offering specialized guidance, training, and accommodations not typically available elsewhere (Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016; McDonnall, 2011). Postsecondary education develops knowledge and credentials, while VR services help translate those qualifications into meaningful employment; together, they build capacity and connect it to real job opportunities.

Research consistently identifies career services as among the most effective VR interventions for improving CIE outcomes among people with BVI. Counseling and guidance foster goal setting, self-advocacy, and barrier navigation, with greater counselor involvement linked to stronger outcomes (Bell & Mino, 2015; McDonnall, 2011). Job placement assistance directly connects clients with employers and significantly increases employment likelihood (Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016; Lund & Cmar, 2019). Short-term supports and supported employment offer individualized coaching and stability for those with substantial barriers (Lund & Cmar, 2019). In contrast, assessment and information referral services are often negatively associated with CIE, likely reflecting minimal engagement or greater service needs (Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016). Job search assistance alone shows limited impact unless paired with intensive placement supports (Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016; McDonnall, 2011). Evidence on benefits counseling is limited but suggests it may help reduce fears about losing SSI or SSDI benefits and encourage work attempts (Bell & Mino, 2015; Lund & Cmar, 2019). Overall, counseling, job placement, and individualized supports appear to be the most influential services for improving employment among individuals with BVI.

Earlier studies using RSA-911 data have examined employment outcomes for individuals with BVI. Darensbourg (2013) identified demographic factors such as age, gender, and severity of vision loss as key factors of CIE, while McDonnall et al. (2023) explored predictors of job quality among employed and unemployed VR consumers. The present study extends this work using more recent RSA-911 data (Program Years 2022–2023) and jointly examines postsecondary education and VR career services as predictors of CIE. This integrated approach provides updated evidence on how education and VR services together improve employment outcomes for individuals with BVI.

Purpose of the Study

This study examines factors related to CIE among prime working-age adults with BVI. The analysis first considers demographic characteristics (gender, race, secondary disability status) and socioeconomic factors (long-term unemployment, low-income status, SSI/SSDI) as baseline factors. It then evaluates the contribution of postsecondary education to employment outcomes, followed by the added impact of VR career services (i.e., assessment, diagnosis and treatment, VR counseling, job search, job placement, short-term supports, supported employment, information referral, benefit counseling). The goal is to identify the most influential factors shaping CIE outcomes and provide evidence to inform policy and rehabilitation practice.

Research Questions

To what extent does postsecondary education increase the likelihood of achieving CIE among individuals with BVI after controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors?

To what extent do VR career services increase the likelihood of achieving CIE among individuals with BVI after controlling for demographic, socioeconomic, and educational factors?

Which factors are most strongly associated with CIE among individuals with BVI?

Methods

Study Cohort and Inclusion Criteria

This study employed secondary data analysis of the U.S. Department of Education's Rehabilitation Services Administration Case Service Report (RSA-911). Data from Program Years 2022 and 2023 were combined to enhance statistical power and capture recent patterns of service delivery for individuals with BVI. Participants were included if they were between 25 and 54 years of age, consistent with the definition of prime working age, and reported blindness or visual impairment as either a primary or secondary disability. A total of 17,703 participants met these criteria. To ensure valid analyses, only individuals with complete data on all study variables were retained, resulting in a final analytic sample of 7,956 participants.

Variables

Outcome Variable

The outcome variable was CIE at case closure, defined by the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) as employment in a setting where individuals with disabilities interact with individuals without disabilities, earn wages at or above minimum wage comparable to coworkers without disabilities, and have access to benefits and advancement opportunities similar to those of nondisabled employees. Employment status was dichotomized as CIE versus not employed at VR case closure.

Independent Variables

Demographic and Socioeconomic Variables. Demographic and socioeconomic variables were selected based on previous research identifying them as significant barriers to employment among individuals with BVI (e.g., Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016; Lund & Cmar, 2019). The demographic factors included gender (male as the reference group), race/ethnicity (White as the reference group), and secondary disability status (no secondary disability as the reference group). Socioeconomic factors included long-term unemployment, defined as being unemployed for 27 or more consecutive weeks at program entry, and low-income status, as determined by RSA-911 criteria such as receipt of public assistance, family income below federal poverty thresholds, or related indicators. Receipt of SSI or SSDI (no benefits as the reference group).

Postsecondary Education. Participants with special education diplomas, secondary school completion, or a GED were classified as not postsecondary, whereas those with vocational or technical certificates, professional certifications, associate, bachelor's, or graduate degrees were classified as postsecondary. The variable was dichotomized to reflect the study's focus on the overall effectiveness of postsecondary attainment, rather than differences across specific educational levels. This approach also ensured adequate cell sizes and stable estimates for the hierarchical logistic regression analysis (HLRA).

VR Career Services. VR career services included assessment, diagnosis and treatment, vocational counseling, job search assistance, job placement, short-term supports, supported employment, information and referral services, and work incentives or benefits counseling. For each service, the reference group comprised participants who did not receive the service. Although customized employment and extended employment are part of the broader VR service categories, no participants in this sample received these services; therefore, they were excluded from the analysis. A detailed description of each service is provided in Table 1.

Table 1.

Description of State Vocational Rehabilitation Agencies’ Career Services.

Type of Service	Description
Assessment	Assessment means services provided and activities performed to determine an individual's eligibility for VR services, to assign an individual to a priority category of a VR program that operates under an order of selection, and/or to determine the nature and scope of VR services to be included in the IPE. It also includes trial work experiences.
Diagnosis and Treatment of Impairments	Corrective surgery or therapeutic treatment, diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders, dentistry, nursing services, necessary hospitalization, drugs and supplies, prosthetics, eyeglasses, podiatry, physical therapy, occupation therapy, speech or hearing therapy, mental health services, treatment of acute or chronic medical complications, other medical or medically related rehabilitation services.
Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling and Guidance	Vocational rehabilitation counseling and guidance includes information and support services to assist an individual in exercising informed choice.
Job Search Assistance	Job search activities support and assist an individual in searching for an appropriate job. Job search assistance may include help in resume preparation, identifying appropriate job opportunities, developing interview skills, and making contacts with companies on behalf of the consumer.
Job Placement Assistance	Job placement assistance is a referral to a specific job resulting in an interview, regardless of whether or not the individual obtained the job.
Short Term Job Supports	Support services provided to an individual who has been placed in employment in order to stabilize the placement and enhance job retention.
Supported Employment Services	Supported employment services are ongoing support services, including customized employment, and other appropriate services needed to support an individual with a most significant disability in maintaining supported employment.
Information and Referral Services	Information and referral services are provided to individuals who need services from other agencies.
Work Incentives Benefits Counseling	Assistance provided to an individual who is interested in becoming employed, but is uncertain of the impact work income may have on any disability benefits and entitlements being received, and/or is not aware of benefits, such as access to healthcare, that might be available to support employment efforts.

Data Analysis

This study involved secondary analysis of de-identified data from the U.S. Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA-911) and was determined to be exempt from institutional review board review. All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 31.0 for Mac. Descriptive statistics were calculated to summarize participant characteristics and VR service use. The primary analysis was HLRA.(Hoyt et al., 2008; Wilson & Lorenz, 2015). Only individuals with complete data on all study variables were retained for analysis to ensure consistency across models and avoid bias due to missing values. HLRA examines relationships between variables and a binary outcome by sequentially adding sets of variables to assess their unique contribution to model fit and explanatory power. In this study, demographic and socioeconomic variables were entered in Step 1, postsecondary education was added in Step 2, and VR career service variables were entered in Step 3. Multicollinearity was assessed using variance inflation factors (VIF) and tolerance values. All VIF values were below 4.0 and all tolerance values exceeded 0.20, indicating no concerns regarding multicollinearity (Hair, 2010).

Results

Descriptive Statistics

The study sample included 7,956 individuals with BVI. Among them, 52.4% (n = 4,248) achieved CIE (see Table 2). The average age of participants was M = 38.68 years (SD = 9.37), with the majority representing the prime working-age group (ages 25–54). Gender distribution was balanced, with 50.4% male (n = 4,010) and 49.6% female (n = 3,946). In terms of race and ethnicity, nearly half identified as White (48.8%, n = 3,884), followed by Black (23.8%, n = 1,895), Hispanic (21.7%, n = 1,727), Asian (3.9%, n = 311), American Indian (1.2%, n = 95), and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (0.6%, n = 44). Almost half of participants (44.8%, n = 3,566) reported having a secondary disability.

Table 2.

Demographic Characteristics of the Participants in this Study (N = 7956).

	n	%
Competitive Integrated Employment (Yes)	4248	52.4%
Age (25–54) Mean=38.68, SD = 9.37
Gender
Male	4010	50.4%
Female	3946	49.6%
Race
White	3884	48.8%
Black	1895	23.8%
Hispanic	1727	21.7%
American Indian	95	1.2%
Asian	311	3.9%
Hawaiian	44	0.6%
Secondary Disability (Yes)	3566	44.8%
Education
Special education diploma	206	2.6%
High school diploma	3422	43.0%
GED	459	5.8%
VT license and certificate	528	6.6%
Other license or certificate	168	2.1%
Associate degree	676	8.5%
Bachelor's degree	1650	20.7%
Graduate degree	847	10.6%
Long Term Unemployment (Yes)	2836	35.6%
Low Income Status (Yes)	3713	46.7%
SSI/SSDI at application (Yes)	2908	36.6%
Career Services
Assessment (Yes)	1764	22.2%
Diagnosis and Treatment (Yes)	1382	17.4%
VR Counseling (Yes)	4762	59.9%
Job Search Assistance (Yes)	741	9.3%
Job Placement Assistance (Yes)	827	10.4%
Short Term Supports (Yes)	328	4.1%
Supported Employment (Yes)	142	1.8%
Information Referral (Yes)	665	8.4%
Work Incentives Benefits Counseling (Yes)	280	3.5%
Post Secondary Education Services
Graduate College or University Training (Yes)	67	0.8%
Four-Year College or University Training (Yes)	198	2.5%
Junior or Community College Training (Yes)	73	0.9%

Table 3.

Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis for Factors Associated with Employment Outcome (N = 7956).

	At Entry into Model					Final Model
Independent Variable	B	S.E.	Waldx²	p	Odds Ratio (95% CI)	B	S.E.	Waldx²	p	Odds Ratio (95% CI)
Step 1
Gender (Male)	0.01	0.05	0.08	0.78	1.01 (0.92, 1.11)	−0.06	0.05	1.28	0.26	0.94 (0.86, 1.04)
Race (Not White)	0.19	0.05	16.34	<.001	1.21 (1.11, 1.33)	0.08	0.05	2.15	0.14	1.08 (0.98, 1.19)
Secondary Disability (No)	−0.48	0.05	103.33	<.001	0.62 (0.56, 0.68)	−0.54	0.05	110.08	<.001	0.59 (0.53, 0.65)
Long-term Unemployment (No)	−0.90	0.05	308.03	<.001	0.41 (0.37, 0.45)	−0.99	0.06	317.20	<.001	0.37 (0.33, 0.41)
Low Income Status (No)	−0.43	0.05	75.58	<.001	0.65 (0.59, 0.72)	−0.35	0.05	44.01	<.001	0.7 (0.63, 0.78)
SSI/SSDI (No)	−0.27	0.05	28.27	<.001	0.77 (0.7, 0.85)	−0.29	0.05	28.75	<.001	0.75 (0.67, 0.83)
Step 2
Postsecondary Education (Not received)	0.69	0.05	198.28	<.001	1.99 (1.8, 2.18)	0.78	0.05	227.00	<.001	2.18 (1.97, 2.41)
Step 3
Assessment	0.04	0.07	0.40	0.53	1.04 (0.92, 1.18)	0.04	0.07	0.40	0.53	1.04 (0.92, 1.18)
Diagnosis and Treatment	0.56	0.07	60.26	<.001	1.75 (1.52, 2.02)	0.56	0.07	60.26	<.001	1.75 (1.52, 2.02)
VR Counseling	0.90	0.06	268.40	<.001	2.45 (2.2, 2.73)	0.90	0.06	268.40	<.001	2.45 (2.2, 2.73)
Job Search	−0.21	0.10	4.41	0.04	0.82 (0.67, 0.99)	−0.21	0.10	4.41	0.04	0.82 (0.67, 0.99)
Job Placement	0.48	0.10	25.35	<.001	1.62 (1.34, 1.95)	0.48	0.10	25.35	<.001	1.62 (1.34, 1.95)
Short Term Supports	1.90	0.17	130.39	<.001	6.72 (4.84, 9.31)	1.90	0.17	130.39	<.001	6.72 (4.84, 9.31)
Supported Employment	1.82	0.24	55.80	<.001	6.18 (3.83, 9.97)	1.82	0.24	55.80	<.001	6.18 (3.83, 9.97)
Information Referral	−0.19	0.10	3.57	0.06	0.83 (0.69, 1.01)	−0.19	0.10	3.57	0.06	0.83 (0.69, 1.01)
Benefits Counseling	0.33	0.14	5.25	0.02	1.39 (1.05, 1.83)	0.33	0.14	5.25	0.02	1.39 (1.05, 1.83)

Note: Nagelkerke R² = .127 (Step 1), .157 (Step 2), .265 (Step 3); Reference categories are indicated in parentheses. For vocational rehabilitation service variables, the reference group is no service received. Odds ratios are interpreted relative to these reference groups.

Regarding highest educational attainment, the most common credential was a high school diploma (43.0%, n = 3,422). Smaller proportions held a GED (5.8%, n = 459), vocational/technical licenses or certificates (6.6%, n = 528), or other professional certifications (2.1%, n = 168). Postsecondary degrees were relatively common, with 8.5% (n = 676) holding an associate degree, 20.7% (n = 1,650) holding a bachelor's degree, and 10.6% (n = 847) holding a graduate degree. A small portion reported completing only a special education diploma (2.6%, n = 206). Additionally, 35.6% (n = 2,836) experienced long-term unemployment, and 46.7% (n = 3,713) were classified as low-income. Over one-third (36.6%, n = 2,908) received SSI/SSDI at application.

In terms of VR career services, the most frequently provided service was VR counseling (59.9%, n = 4,762). Other notable services included assessment (22.2%, n = 1,764), diagnosis and treatment (17.4%, n = 1,382), job placement assistance (10.4%, n = 827), and job search assistance (9.3%, n = 741). Less commonly reported services were short-term supports (4.1%, n = 328), supported employment (1.8%, n = 142), information referral (8.4%, n = 665), and work incentives/benefits counseling (3.5%, n = 280).

Finally, a small percentage of participants received postsecondary training services through state VR agencies, including graduate-level college or university training (0.8%, n = 67), four-year college or university training (2.5%, n = 198), and junior or community college training (0.9%, n = 73).

Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis

Hierarchical logistic regression analysis results are presented in Table 3. Step 1. Demographic and socioeconomic factors (gender, race, secondary disability, long-term unemployment, low-income status, and SSI/SSDI) were entered first. Secondary disability, long-term unemployment, low-income status, and receipt of SSI/SSDI were significantly associated with CIE outcomes. Specifically, having a secondary disability decreased the odds of achieving CIE by 38% (OR = 0.62, 95% CI [0.56, 0.68], p < .001), while a history of long-term unemployment reduced the odds by 59% (OR = 0.41, 95% CI [0.37, 0.45], p < .001). Low-income status reduced the odds of CIE by 35% (OR = 0.65, 95% CI [0.59, 0.72], p < .001), and receipt of SSI/SSDI was associated with 23% lower odds of CIE (OR = 0.77, 95% CI [0.70, 0.85], p < .001). Race was also a significant variable at entry, with White individuals having 21% higher odds of achieving CIE compared to non-White individuals (OR = 1.21, 95% CI [1.11, 1.33], p < .001). Gender was not a significant variable. The omnibus test for Step 1 was statistically significant, χ² (6, N = 7,956) = 792.30, p < .001, with a Nagelkerke R² of .127.

Step 2. Postsecondary education was added in the second step. Postsecondary education emerged as a strong variable, with individuals who attained postsecondary credentials having nearly twice the odds of achieving CIE compared to those without such education (OR = 1.99, 95% CI [1.80, 2.18], p < .001). The omnibus test for Step 2 was significant, χ²(7, N = 7,956) = 992.76, p < .001, and the Nagelkerke R² increased to .157, indicating improved explanatory power.

Step 3. Career service variables (assessment, diagnosis and treatment, VR counseling, job search assistance, job placement, short-term supports, supported employment, information referral, and benefits counseling) were entered in the final step. The omnibus test was statistically significant, χ²(16, N = 7,956) = 1760.18, p < .001, indicating that this block further improved model fit. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test was significant, χ² (8, N = 7,956) = 17.95, p < .05, suggesting some evidence of misfit. However, given the large sample size, even small deviations can yield statistical significance. Additional indices supported overall adequacy: the model demonstrated acceptable discrimination with an AUC of .76 (SE = .01, 95% CI [.75, .77], p < .001), and a Nagelkerke R² of .265 indicated a moderate association between variables and CIE outcomes.

Several VR career services significantly increased the likelihood of achieving CIE. Individuals who received diagnosis and treatment services had 75% higher odds of CIE compared to those who did not (OR = 1.75, 95% CI [1.52, 2.02], p < .001). VR counseling more than doubled the odds of CIE (OR = 2.45, 95% CI [2.20, 2.73], p < .001), and job placement assistance increased the odds by 62% (OR = 1.62, 95% CI [1.34, 1.95], p < .001). Short-term supports were among the strongest variables, with recipients nearly seven times more likely to achieve CIE (OR = 6.72, 95% CI [4.84, 9.31], p < .001) and supported employment services increased the odds more than sixfold (OR = 6.18, 95% CI [3.83, 9.97], p < .001). In contrast, job search assistance was associated with an 18% reduction in odds of CIE (OR = 0.82, 95% CI [0.67, 0.99], p < .05), while benefits counseling modestly increased the odds by 39% (OR = 1.39, 95% CI [1.05, 1.83], p < .05). Information referral (OR = 0.83, 95% CI [0.69, 1.01], p = .06) and assessment services (OR = 1.04, 95% CI [0.92, 1.18], p = .53) were not significant variables.

Final Model. In the final model, secondary disability, long-term unemployment, low-income status, receipt of SSI/SSDI, postsecondary education, diagnosis and treatment, VR counseling, job placement, short-term supports, supported employment, job search assistance (negatively associated), and benefits counseling remained significantly related to CIE. Among these, long-term unemployment decreased the odds of achieving CIE by 63% (OR = 0.37, 95% CI [0.33, 0.41], p < .001), while postsecondary education more than doubled the odds (OR = 2.18, 95% CI [1.97, 2.41], p < .001). VR counseling also more than doubled the odds of achieving CIE (OR = 2.45, 95% CI [2.20, 2.73], p < .001), emerging as one of the most influential variables in the model.

Discussion

This study examined factors of CIE among prime working-age adults with BVI, focusing on the role of postsecondary education in shaping employment outcomes through marketable credentials and specialized skills. Because education alone may not overcome systemic barriers, the study also explored how VR services help translate educational attainment into meaningful employment. In this way, education and VR services function as complementary mechanisms: education builds human capital, while VR services ensure that this capacity connects to real employment opportunities. Using HLRA, the analysis accounted for demographic, socioeconomic, and service-related factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of the variables that influence CIE among adults with BVI.

Demographic and Socioeconomic Variables

Consistent with prior research, demographic and socioeconomic variables exerted considerable influence on CIE outcomes. In the baseline model, factors such as secondary disability, long-term unemployment, low-income status, and receipt of SSI/SSDI at application were significant variables of CIE. These variables together explained about 13% of the variance in employment outcomes (Nagelkerke R² = .127). This finding underscores the substantial disadvantage that clients with multiple barriers face when seeking employment (Cimera et al., 2015; Lund & Cmar, 2019) and highlights the influence of social determinants such as poverty and health on VR outcomes (Giesen & Hierholzer, 2016). Importantly, these barriers often create a vicious cycle. Individuals who are low income or have experienced long-term unemployment are less likely to secure jobs, and this lack of employment then reinforces poverty and prolonged unemployment, compounding disadvantage over time.

Postsecondary Education

When postsecondary education was introduced, the model explained about 16% of the variance in outcomes (Nagelkerke R² = .157), reflecting its strong and independent contribution beyond background characteristics. Postsecondary education emerged as one of the factors most strongly associated with CIE: individuals with a degree were more than twice as likely to achieve CIE compared to those without such credentials. This reinforces prior findings that education substantially increases access to stable employment and higher earnings, both in the general population and among people with BVI (Lund & Cmar, 2019). By acting as a fundamental equalizer, postsecondary education allows individuals with BVI to transcend physical limitations that inherently restrict participation in visual or manual labor. Specifically, education serves as a vital mechanism for shifting a client's career trajectory toward knowledge-based sectors where visual functioning is less central to productivity (McDonnall & Tatch, 2021). Despite its importance, few VR clients with BVI received VR-sponsored postsecondary training (0.8% graduate, 2.5% four-year, 0.9% community college). These low rates highlight a gap: while education strongly predicts employment, many clients may not be accessing or completing higher education through VR supports.

Vocational Rehabilitation Career Services

In the final model, which included VR career services, the analysis explained about 27% of the variance in employment outcomes (Nagelkerke R² = .265). Several services, including short-term supports, supported employment, and VR counseling, were strongly associated with CIE. Short-term supports and supported employment, in particular, showed the strongest associations, suggesting that intensive, hands-on services are especially effective for clients with BVI. The strong results for these services, with odds ratios of 6.72 and 6.18, respectively, highlight that facilitating early job stabilization is critical to a successful outcome. By providing a “safety net” during the first few weeks on the job, these supports allow clients to handle navigation and technology challenges as they happen, which prevents them from leaving the position early. By contrast, job search services were linked to lower odds of CIE, consistent with prior research showing that less intensive services may be insufficient to overcome the unique barriers this group faces (Lund & Cmar, 2019). This negative association suggests that less intensive job search services may be insufficient for the BVI community. It likely shows that simple search support cannot handle the major hurdles people face, and these services might offer less direct counselor time than more successful, hands-on programs like job placement or short-term coaching.

Descriptive findings further indicate that the usage rates of these intensive services were relatively low. For instance, only 4.1% of participants received short-term supports, and just 1.8% received supported employment. Similarly, fewer than 11% of clients received job placement assistance. Given that these services emerged as some of the strongest variables of successful employment, their limited availability or underutilization suggests missed opportunities within the VR system. Expanding access to these high-impact services could substantially improve CIE outcomes for clients with BVI.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, it relied on RSA-911 administrative data, which lack psychosocial or contextual variables such as motivation, coping skills, social support, and employer attitudes. Although the dataset is a valuable national resource, some variables, such as public benefit status or wages, are entered by VR staff and may depend on client self-report, introducing possible reporting error (Peterson et al., 2024). Second, while the study identified variables of CIE, it did not examine employment quality, job satisfaction, or long-term retention. Future research should explore these aspects, especially for individuals who complete postsecondary education. Qualitative studies may also offer deeper insight into why some VR services are more effective than others. Third, as an observational study, causal relationships cannot be inferred. Associations between VR services and CIE may reflect unmeasured factors such as counselor discretion, client self-selection, or agency practices. Fourth, individuals with blindness or visual impairment were treated as one group, though service effectiveness may vary. For instance, supported employment might better serve those without prior work experience, while job search assistance may benefit individuals with higher education. Subgroup or decision tree analyses could clarify these distinctions. Finally, certain services, such as supported employment and short-term supports, had low usage rates, which may limit estimate stability. Moreover, CIE was measured only at case closure, capturing short-term outcomes. Longitudinal research is needed to assess employment sustainability and whether the benefits of postsecondary education and VR services persist over time.

Implications and Future Directions

Implications for Practice

For practitioners, the findings highlight the critical need to coordinate postsecondary education and VR career services within individualized rehabilitation planning. Postsecondary education equips clients with marketable skills and credentials, while intensive VR services, counseling, supported employment, job placement, and short-term supports bridge the transition to sustainable employment. Yet, only a small proportion of clients received these high-impact services, despite their strong association with CIE. VR counselors should therefore proactively identify and engage clients who could benefit most from intensive supports, particularly those facing barriers such as poverty, long-term unemployment, or secondary disabilities. Facilitating early connection to job placement and supported employment services can help translate educational gains into tangible labor market outcomes. For clients pursuing higher education, counselors must ensure that appropriate accommodations and supports are in place, including accessible instructional materials, assistive technology, financial assistance, and mentoring. Integrating these supports throughout the academic and employment process may reduce dropout risk and enhance persistence and degree completion.

While the current study focused on education and VR career services, practitioners should also recognize that foundational blindness skills, including Braille literacy, orientation and mobility (O&M), and adaptive technology use, serve as essential prerequisites for successful participation in postsecondary education and employment. Studies have shown that individuals who regularly read Braille and travel independently experience significantly higher rates of CIE and greater annual earnings than those who do not (Bell & Mino, 2015). Therefore, integrating these skill-development opportunities early in the rehabilitation process may strengthen clients’ readiness to benefit from career services.

Finally, for clients with multiple disabilities or those receiving public benefits, counselors should consider integrating extended and customized supports, benefits counseling, and coordinated services with external agencies to address the compounded barriers these individuals face (Iwanaga et al., 2021; Lund & Cmar, 2019). Promoting positive disability identity and mental well-being within the Individualized Plan for Employment can also enhance long-term vocational adjustment and job retention (Clapp et al., 2020).

Implications for Policy

At the policy level, the results highlight the need to expand equitable access to both postsecondary education and intensive VR career services. Policymakers should prioritize funding for postsecondary training opportunities within VR, recognizing their long-term role in building human capital and reducing employment gaps. Policies should also support the expansion and consistent provision of high-impact services such as supported employment, short-term supports, and job placement, which remain underutilized despite their effectiveness. Addressing broader systemic inequities, including poverty, long-term unemployment, and unequal access to technology, will also be essential to improving employment outcomes. Ensuring that VR agencies have adequate resources, staff training, and accountability measures will help them provide individualized, evidence-based services. Finally, stronger collaboration between VR agencies, postsecondary institutions, and employers could create more reliable pipelines from education to meaningful and sustainable employment for individuals with BVI (Collard, 2021; McDonnall, 2016).

Implications for Research

This study demonstrates that both postsecondary education and intensive VR career services are among the factors most strongly associated with CIE for individuals with BVI. Future research should build on these findings by examining why service utilization rates for high-impact interventions such as supported employment and short-term supports tend to be low. Studies could look at factors such as service availability, provider training, and counselor confidence in the quality or effectiveness of these services. The strong link between postsecondary education and employment outcomes also suggests the need to better understand how VR counselors decide whether to refer clients to postsecondary training. Decisions may be shaped by agency policies, funding limits, counselor attitudes, or perceptions of a client's readiness for school. Understanding these factors could lead to clearer guidelines and more equitable access to educational opportunities for individuals with BVI. Long-term studies are needed to assess whether education and VR benefits extend beyond job placement to stability, advancement, and wage growth. Research should also examine the quality of employment to determine whether these services help individuals move beyond low-paying or stereotypical “blind jobs.” In addition, studies on services not included in the RSA-911 dataset, such as orientation and mobility training, Braille literacy, and assistive technology, could help explain their indirect influence on employment outcomes. Finally, research should explore how counselors identify which clients would benefit most from intensive supports and what factors guide these decisions. This could help clarify how counselor training, agency practices, and context shape service delivery and outcomes.

Conclusion

This study found that postsecondary education and VR services both showed strong associations with the achievement of CIE among adults with BVI. Postsecondary education equips individuals with skills and credentials for better job opportunities, while VR services help them apply those skills to secure and sustain meaningful work. Services such as short-term supports, supported employment, counseling, and job placement were particularly effective, yet many clients did not receive them. Expanding access to education and intensive VR supports could significantly improve employment opportunities for people with BVI. Future research should examine long-term outcomes and job quality to understand how education and VR services foster lasting, meaningful careers.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors have no additional acknowledgments.

Ethics Statement

This study used secondary data and was exempt from Institutional Review Board approval.

Informed Consent

This study used secondary data, so informed consent was not needed.

Funding

The contents of this article were developed under Grant H129P250009 from the U.S. Department of Education (the Department). The Department does not mandate or prescribe practices, models, or other activities described or dicussed in this document. The contents of this article do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department. This publication is not intented to represent the views or policy of, or to serve as an endorsement of, any views expressed or materials provided by any federal agency (EDGAR 75.620).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability

The data used in this study are part of a restricted administrative dataset and are not publicly available. Access is limited to authorized users through the Rehabilitation Services Administration.

ORCID iDs

Kanako Iwanaga

Christine A. Reid

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