This Is Not a Vacation: The Shadow Side of Study Abroad Programs for Faculty

Abstract

Study abroad programs (SAPs) are desirable experiential learning opportunities that can enrich students and faculty alike. Faculty participate in SAPs because their immersive learning contexts offer a variety of personal and professional benefits, including the chance to meet new research contacts, tour cultural sites, and get to know students in a more informal context. Despite these benefits, SAPs contain a substantial shadow side for faculty and involve unanticipated temporal, financial, and physiological costs. Additionally, risks—some of which can never be fully avoided—also remain sources of stress and anxiety. This study uses a qualitative approach to identify and shed light on these understated issues that are typically relegated to the shadow. Questionnaires and semistructured interviews with experienced SAP faculty leaders provide evidence for these elements, which is the first step in aligning faculty expectations with the likely realities that await them abroad. The study concludes with practices and strategies to mitigate some of the costs and risks that faculty may face before, during, and after their involvement in an SAP.

Keywords

study abroad engaged learning experiential learning shadow faculty

It was romanticized, initially. And I looked at is as a cool thing to do. It seemed fun and exciting. Plus, you get paid to go to Europe and see cool things. Part of it not living up to the vision is the students being more interested in getting drunk than seeing a new culture.

—Associate professor, describing an unexpected study abroad program experience

Study abroad programs (SAPs) are engaged-learning experiences (Nikolova & Andersen, 2017; Stone & Petrick, 2013) that can influence students for a lifetime (Hopkins, 1999; Lutterman-Aguilar & Gingerich, 2002). Administrators and accreditors encourage SAPs (Forray & Woodilla, 2009) because “with the increase in globalization comes the need for universities to graduate students with a global perspective” (Zhuang, King, & Carnes, 2015, p. 32), and student participants report improved cultural competence (Kitsantas, 2004; Sutton & Rubin, 2004), higher academic scores (Miller-Perrin & Thompson, 2014), expanded worldviews (Dwyer, 2004), and increased cultural sensitivity (Olson & Lalley, 2012).

Positive student experiences are well-documented (Hadis, 2005; Stone & Petrick, 2013); however, faculty experiences can differ greatly (Festervand & Tillery, 2001; Hamza, 2010). As a form of experiential learning (EL), SAPs require extensive faculty involvement before, during, and after the trip (Dewey & Duff, 2009). SAP faculty report expectations of rewarding learning opportunities for students, but these expectations may not align with their lived reality or with the messages faculty receive about SAPs (Sandgren, Elig, Hovde, Krejci, & Rice, 1999).

This exploratory study identifies understated SAP faculty experience elements through a questionnaire and follow-up interviews that address the research question, “What unspoken or unanticipated aspects constitute the shadow side of SAPs for faculty?” Seventeen respondents from 10 institutions shared their SAP experiences, resulting in several contributions. First, this study provides a rich description of the lived realities of SAP faculty. Second, it addresses the need for a dialogue to reduce unanticipated SAP costs and risks (Leuthge, 2004). Finally, to document best practices, it offers strategies that faculty employed to improve their own SAPs. These strategies illuminate the shadow side of SAPs and hold value for faculty, staff, and administrators.

Study Abroad Programs

As a form of EL, SAPs incorporate travel to pursue academic, professional, and cultural goals (Hopkins, 1999). Time commitments and immersion intensities vary, resulting in programs ranging from short-term study tours to long-term exchange programs (Engle & Engle, 2003). Management SAPs tend to focus on business site visits, cross-cultural issues, and international competition and require students to integrate new information with previously held assumptions. The faculty-focused SAP literature addresses administrative issues (Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, & Ardichvili, 2016; Peng, Van Dyne, & Oh, 2015), but SAPs take time and effort beyond the course design (Howard & Keller, 2009). Faculty must organize the trip and then deal with in-country student issues such as homesickness, alcohol consumption (Hummer, Pederson, Mizra, & LaBrie, 2010), and romantic entanglements (Wright & Larsen, 2016). Faculty also act as subject matter experts, disciplinarians, and institutional ambassadors. These myriad issues are misaligned with the received view of SAPs as wholly positive opportunities.

The Organizational Shadow

The shadow is an archetype derived from Jungian psychology (Jung, 1968) that focuses on portions of the self that are intentionally or unintentionally repressed, censored, or rejected to maintain a positive self-image. Organizations develop shadows (Kostera & Kociatkiewicz, 2010) from the “facts which organizations wish to deny about themselves, due to the threat posed to self-image . . . and more generally, the need to be viewed in a favourable light by others” (Bowles, 1991, p. 378). In EL, censored facts (Fitzgerald, Oliver, & Hoxsey, 2010) relate to the faculty activities necessary to generate effective pedagogical opportunities. The shadow’s destructive power can be lessened by assimilating previously concealed elements into the conscious personality (Jung, 1968), but this creates a conundrum for institutions, as awareness may also cause novice faculty members to avoid SAPs. Consequently, understated facts about organizational support, costs, and risks remain hidden to maintain a favorable view of faculty SAP participation, and, when left to “accumulate at the margins” (Kostera & Kociatkiewicz, 2010, p. 258), form the shadow side of SAPs.

Data Collection, Analysis, and Results

The dearth of research on faculty SAP experiences necessitated an exploratory approach to the shadow side of SAP involvement. To that end, this study proceeded in two stages, beginning with a questionnaire followed by interviews with a subset of respondents. Questionnaire items included “How many times have you been involved with study abroad?,” “Would you recommend study abroad to a colleague— why or why not?,” and demographics. We pretested the instrument with four faculty members and two graduate research assistants before soliciting responses from 25 known faculty colleagues from management programs in U.S.-based colleges of business. We received 17 responses from 10 institutions for a response rate of 68%. Within this sample, 71% have tenure, 65% are employed at non–research-intensive institutions, and 52% identify as female. Table 1 presents additional descriptive statistics.

Table 1.

Sample Descriptive Statistics.

Demographic	Count^a	Percentage of sample
Gender
Female	9	52
Male	8	48
Academic rank^b
Full professor	9	53
Associate professor	3	18
Assistant professor	3	18
Non–tenure track	2	12
Institutional profile
Non–research-intensive	11	65
Research-intensive	6	35

For each category, n = 17. ^bDue to rounding, not all category percentages sum to 100.

We conducted semistructured interviews with five respondents who expanded on their questionnaire responses. Each audio-recorded interview included two researchers, ranged from 22 to 48 minutes in length, and was professionally transcribed within 24 hours. Table 2 presents the interview protocol.

Table 2.

Semistructured Interview Protocol.

Continued involvement	You mentioned that you are [or are not] likely to continue participating in SAPs—can you tell us a little more about why that is?
SAP recommendations	What type of faculty are SAPs best for?
SAP recommendations	Are there any faculty you think should NOT be involved in SAPs?
Faculty risks	Beyond what you mentioned on the questionnaire, can you think of any additional risks that faculty face?
Institutional support	What are some of the resources that you know of at [Institution] to help with SAPs?
	Do you feel like the training you received was adequate?
	Do you feel like the university would “have your back” if something went wrong on a trip?
Pros and cons	What is the best part about SAP involvement?
Pros and cons	What is the worst part about SAP involvement?
SAP improvements	What advice would you give to a faculty member interested in getting involved in an SAP?
SAP improvements	What could your university do to make it easier for faculty to say “yes” to participating in SAPs?

Note. SAP = study abroad program.

Researchers imported the interview transcripts into QDAMiner (provalis.com) for text analysis (Eisenhardt & Bourgeois, 1988) and iterative content analysis (Charmaz, 2006). Consistent with the concept of the shadow as consciously or unconsciously minimized elements that maintain a positive self-image (Fitzgerald et al., 2010), researchers identified issues that were beyond faculty expectations, contradicted the received view of SAPs as a wholly positive experience, and if shared, could dissuade other faculty from participating in SAPs. This heuristic resulted in two themes related to the shadow side of SAPs: shadow costs and shadow risks. Following each interview, the two researchers (1) discussed and refined their notes and (2) coded each transcript independently for the two themes while developing a codebook for subthemes. After reconciling differences and finalizing a common codebook for the questionnaires and transcripts, the codebook was locked and applied to the questionnaires and transcripts. Table 3 presents the main themes, subthemes, and example quotes.

Table 3.

Themes, Subthemes, and Example Quotes for Shadow Costs and Shadow Risks.

Theme	Subtheme	Example quotes
Shadow costs
	Temporal	• “The problem for me was that I was doing all the logistics in-country and teaching. It was just too much.”• “[The worst part] is the paperwork. When we first started doing our trips 13 years ago, there was nothing. We wrote our own agreements. Now there is paperwork, training, paperwork, questions to answer with the Office of Study Abroad. It almost makes it not worth doing.”• Study abroads are worth the effort, but faculty should be aware that it is much more work and time than they are anticipating.• “It is very time-consuming in preparation with the students before you leave the country. Many meetings, answering many concerns from students and their parents.”• “All of the policies and procedures required by Study Abroad are now making it almost too hard.”
	Financial	• “It’s just a lot of money . . . tied up into it . . . I had to buy all the train tickets from [the capital] to [the SAP city] . . . things like that [and] all the Metro tickets when I arrived in [the capital]. It just goes on and on.”• “I was not reimbursed for meals the first two years.”• “On longer trips, I have always lost money due to low funding for faculty expenses such as food.”• “You get per diem, but it never covers the cost.”
	Physiological	• “You never stop worrying [about the students]. The commitment to student safety is a 24/7 concern and stressor.”• “[The country] was having an H1N1 flu outbreak when we were there, so everyone was a little on edge.”• “I think I’m still haunted by that guy dying the first year that I did a study abroad.”
Shadow risks
	Relational	• “Keep an arm’s length and keep it professional. [Students shouldn’t] come to you with personal problems. Travel with someone who’s a representative of the university that can handle a lot of these student issues.”• “Personalities can make travel challenging.”• “It’s hard to maintain your professionalism in a 24/7 activity.”• “You can’t hang out with your students at night (going to bars, etc.), so you end up often going solo to places.”
	Legal	• “I believe the legal liability has increased for faculty members since my first SAP. I would suggest [a] personal umbrella insurance policy for any faculty going now.”• “I’ll never forget when [another colleague] said, ‘Someone’s going to get raped on these study abroad trips and I don’t want to have to deal with that.’ And I believe her.”• “My insurance agent told me that if I was sued by a parent (because their child got hurt), my personal liability insurance would not cover it.”
	Professional	• “I was an untenured professor [when I led my first SAP] and was quite nervous and concerned about my future with the university. . . . That’s extremely stressful because . . . there was a fear of embarrassing my university, not living up to expectations. It doesn’t take much to ruin a career these days.”• “I can’t think of anybody that did this when they weren’t tenured. And, really, most people after they get tenure, I don’t know if they want to spend their time this way.”• “There are too many things that can go wrong. When I think about the people on the trips, almost all of them are tenured.”• “People that do not have tenure should not do this. If there is an embarrassing incident, it would be very easy to burn an untenured professor.”• “Depending on the outcome of the trip, it could harm a junior faculty’s reputation and career—including time for research.”

Note. SAP = study abroad program.

Shadow Costs for Faculty

SAPs require substantial faculty effort (Howard & Keller, 2009); however, the first main theme was that of shadow costs in excess of faculty expectations.

Temporal Costs

The first cost-related subtheme dealt with time. Respondents acknowledged expecting temporal costs prior to the SAP but also referenced the shadow by noting (1) how much greater the time commitments actually are and (2) the range of unanticipated activities that they engage in. One respondent said, “Study abroads are worth the effort, but faculty should be aware that it is much more work and time than they are anticipating.” Another noted that the investment is not always worth the outcome: “We don’t get enough credit for these trips. It takes a large amount of time.” Furthermore, temporal costs can extend into periods when faculty would not ordinarily interact with students: “In the middle of the night, I was in bed and I hear this raucous outside yelling [. . .] and I realize that it’s [our students] making the noise.” These commitments wear on faculty, who may ultimately lean away from SAPs. In the words of another respondent, “I’m at the point that my time is so valuable . . . I don’t really want to do [study abroad anymore].” When even experienced faculty members face greater-than-anticipated time commitments, the shadow becomes evident.

Financial Costs

The second cost-related subtheme deals with financial costs before, during, and after the SAP. Although some respondents noted that SAPs can be a lucrative source of income, compensation varied widely across institutions. Before the SAP, budgets are based on projected exchange rates but subject to amendment. During the SAP, some faculty incur expenses on personal credit cards for group purchases. After the SAP, some respondents were reimbursed for fewer expenses than expected. Some faculty were not compensated for leading an SAP at all. One respondent remarked, “We don’t get paid or even a course release for the Fall and Spring trips, only Summer.” Respondents also identified opportunity costs: “You could teach summer [instead] and take a really nice trip and not have to be responsible for students.” Regardless of compensation, unanticipated financial costs can be a challenge. Even with extensive up-front budgeting, “things almost always cost more than you expect,” and this shadow element conceals the full picture of costs and compensation. Faculty who experience unexpected financial costs may discontinue their SAP involvement; as one respondent said, “It’s cheaper and more fun to travel on your own.”

Physiological Costs

The third cost-related subtheme deals with the physiological toll stress and illness take on SAP faculty. Respondents mentioned anticipated issues such as jet lag and general fatigue, but travel can take an unexpectedly physical toll when “the commitment to student safety is a 24/7 concern and stressor.” Respondents noted lasting effects on perceptions of their students, institutions, and society: “I lose a little bit of faith in humanity on each trip based on student behavior.” Many of these costs were greater than expected, suggesting that physiological shadow costs go beyond worrying about missed flights.

Shadow Risks for Faculty

The second main theme that coders identified was shadow risks. Risks differed from costs in that even if they did not come to pass, the potential for harm was a decision-making factor. Nearly every respondent described risks, some of which loomed large enough to convince experienced SAP faculty to discontinuing their involvement.

Relational Risk

Respondents indicated that one of the most rewarding parts of SAPs is getting to know people in a less formal context. They described the benefits of “seeing my nontraveled students suddenly realize the benefits of learning about different cultures” and “getting to know the students well,” but these carry risks as well. Relational risk describes the unexpected impact that long hours and close quarters can have on relationships with students and colleagues. One respondent noted, “That last group [of students] finished me off. It was just too many mean girls. That was my big revelation that it’s not worth it for me.” This theme of relational risk also applied to collegial relationships: “I’ve been on study abroad trips with people that I don’t get along with. That is taxing.” The shadow side is the way SAPs can strengthen some relationships but weaken others.

Legal Risk

Many respondents also mentioned their perception of personal legal risk. One said, “I always worry about our legal responsibilities,” while another said, “Universities haven’t figured out how to handle the liabilities for students travelling abroad.” Nine respondents indicated that they attended formal institutional training sessions with modules focused on student safety and legal policies. Despite this training, one respondent advised, “[Protect yourself, because] the university won’t have your back if a student gets hurt. . . . My insurance agent told me to quit doing these trips because they created a personal liability.” Legal risk constitutes a shadow issue because personal liability is unknown until after an issue unfolds overseas.

Professional Risk

The third subtheme is professional risk. Despite the expectation that SAP participation sends favorable signals about commitment to students and institutions, respondents noted that SAP involvement could be a career-limiting move. One associate professor said, “It might not be the best way to set oneself up for the tenure process,” and a full professor advised, “If you don’t have tenure, don’t do it. . . . You don’t want to be known as the person who is spending their summer running around Europe with students.” This perception that faculty—especially untenured faculty—will bear the professional risk can shrink the pool of potential SAP leaders, creating an element of the SAP shadow for institutions that want an active pipeline of interested faculty.

In sum, these three risks exemplify the adage that “no good deed goes unpunished,” when faculty who assume the temporal, financial, and physiological costs also need to consider potential risks related to personality clashes, lawsuits, or tenure votes. Each risk presents the shadow side by illustrating a reality not often fully described in the literature or the SAP marketing. Because faculty members voluntarily participate in SAPs, an exhaustive discussion of potential risks may diminish interest. There is an incentive to highlight the personally fulfilling aspects and to downplay the potential costs and risks of leading an SAP, so keeping these issues in the shadow may benefit the organization and its programs at the expense of the individual.

Discussion

Beyond risks and costs, respondents also described plenty of benefits associated with their participation in SAPs, including a renewed interest in teaching, “I learn something new every single time I go,” and broadening horizons: “Getting to share that kind of experience with students who would never otherwise be exposed is tremendously rewarding to me.” This “lightbulb” moment is described as the best part of SAPs, but shadow costs and risks can still change the value proposition and lead to burnout (Eckert, Luqmani, Newell, Quraeshi, & Wagner, 2013). A respondent who had led five SAPs remarked, “At my age, it’s not how you want to spend your time,” suggesting that SAPs exact a toll.

SAP shadow elements can stem from varied sources, including inexperience or naïveté, poor planning with students or university offices, or an incomplete accounting of risks and costs from more experienced faculty members. In acknowledging these costs and risks, respondents also offer guidance for faculty to improve their own SAPs. In many cases, these strategies are field-tested and have worked well in the past. In other cases, respondents offer hard-learned lessons so that other faculty members can avoid repeating mistakes. Both forms of guidance represent touchstones; as such, these recommendations shed light on SAP involvement. Rather than attempting to dissuade faculty, many respondents note that this is a form of EL that faculty should not be afraid of but should be more informed about ahead of time.

Save Time and Money: Don’t Reinvent the Wheel

Although many universities provide SAP support offices (Whalen, 2015), most respondents noted that informal mentorship was their most useful resource because it produced program-specific information. One respondent noted, “[Another faculty member] shared her syllabus and helped me understand what I needed to do.” Multiple respondents recommended reducing workloads by delegating tasks to professional travel groups or staff chaperones, which echoes literature (Barr, 2013). Faculty can also look to broader initiatives such as the Maximizing Study Abroad Project (Paige, Harvey, & McCleary, 2012). As faculty develop their own resources, exposure to ideas at conferences and forums can reduce time and effort, particularly for inaugural trips (Howard & Keller, 2009).

Protect Yourself: Structure Programs for Well-Being

To minimize unanticipated physiological costs and legal risks, respondents described using interviews and orientations to screen student applicants ahead of time. Some SAPs also use personal conduct contracts to communicate behavioral expectations. One respondent recommended minimizing free time to reduce in-country problems: “I don’t think there should be free weekends. [Maybe] an option of, ‘You can go see this with [Professor A] or that with [Professor B].’ Other respondents noted lower stress levels by reducing the student-to-faculty ratios and exchanging multiple forms of contact information. Respondents and research (Sachau, Brasher, & Fee, 2010) also suggest fighting the temptation to fit everything into one trip to protect faculty time and health. Finally, multiple respondents and research (Gordon & Smith, 1992) recommend securing an individual insurance policy.

Keep it Professional: Reputation Maintenance

To mitigate reputational risk, the strongest advice from respondents was to get involved with SAPs only after tenure. This recommendation related to job security if a trip should go badly and the priority of research productivity at an early career stage. Using SAP-specific language also clearly communicates expectations. One full professor said, “We don’t call them trips. We’re trying to get everyone to say ‘program.’ It makes it sound less like a boondoggle.” Respondents also advocated maintaining professional boundaries: “You don’t ever want to start drinking with students.” Another respondent used a nonfaculty chaperone from the Academic Affairs office to maintain professionalism by separating roles between teaching and nonteaching staff. Taken together, these recommendations offer strategies for faculty to plan their own SAPs.

Boundary Conditions

This exploratory study is purposely bounded in scope in several ways. First, it focuses exclusively on identifying faculty perceptions of SAP shadow elements. Additional research could incorporate perspectives from other stakeholders, such as administrators, chaperones, professional tour organizers, and students to more fully understand the constellation of shadow elements associated with SAPs. The inclusion of these additional voices would make for more robust SAPs that account for a variety of expectations from the experience. Second, this study relies on a sample of faculty with direct SAP experience. Future research could compare this to faculty members without SAP experience to better understand whether these issues influence rates of participation. Third, although the SAP host countries in this sample vary widely (e.g., China, Ireland, Costa Rica), all of the respondents are employed in the United States. Expanding on this study to include perceptions of faculty from other countries could be useful to explore home country culture and SAP shadow elements. Finally, the breadth of faculty experiences identified through this exploratory study offer additional research opportunities. Some faculty found SAPs lucrative, while others received unexpectedly low reimbursements, suggesting that shadow elements can vary. A closer analysis of these issues could generate insights into how shadow elements change over time as faculty members gain experience with particular programs.

Conclusion

SAPs can be a rewarding form of EL for students and faculty alike, but meaningful and successful SAPs do not happen in a vacuum. They result from hours of work by faculty who are also willing to assume that despite unanticipated costs and risks, the end result will be worth it for everyone involved. Understanding the shadow weakens its destructive potential (Bowles, 1991), so faculty who approach SAPs with their eyes wide open can spend less time worrying and more time providing their students with the kind of experience that make these programs so worthwhile.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the constructive comments that the anonymous reviewers and the editors provided on earlier drafts of this article. Additionally, we want to acknowledge our colleagues from various institutions who participated as respondents. Without their candid firsthand insights, this study would not have been possible.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Timothy M. Madden

References

Barr

T. F.

(2013). Utilizing student affairs professionals to enhance student and faculty experiences and mitigate risk in short-term, faculty-led study abroad programs. Journal of International Education in Business, 6, 136-147.

Bowles

M. L.

(1991). The organization shadow. Organization Studies, 12, 387-404.

Charmaz

(2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dewey

Duff

(2009). Reason before passion: Faculty views on internationalization in higher education. Higher Education, 58, 491-504.

Dwyer

M. M.

(2004). More is better: The impact of study abroad program duration. Frontiers, 10, 151-163.

Eckert

Luqmani

Newell

Quraeshi

Wagner

(2013). Developing short-term study abroad programs: Achieving successful international student experiences. American Journal of Business Education, 6, 439-458.

Eisenhardt

K. M.

Bourgeois

L. J.

(1988). Politics of decision making in high velocity environments: Towards a midrange theory. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 737-770.

Engle

(2003). Study abroad levels: Toward a classification of program types. Frontiers, 9(1), 1-20.

Festervand

T. A.

Tillery

K. R.

(2001). Short-term study-abroad programs: A professional development tool for international business faculty. Journal of Education for Business, 77, 106-111.

10.

Fitzgerald

S. P.

Oliver

Hoxsey

J. C.

(2010). Appreciative inquiry as a shadow process. Journal of Management Inquiry, 19, 220-233.

11.

Forray

J. M.

Woodilla

(2009). Developing worldview as a learning objective: A rubric for assessment of international travel programs. Journal of International Business Education, 4, 251-268.

12.

Gordon

Smith

D. K.

(1992). Planning, organizing, and executing short term international exposures for U.S. students of marketing and business. Marketing Education Review, 2, 47-53.

13.

Hadis

(2005). Why are they better students when they come back? Determinants of academic focusing gains in the study abroad experience. Frontiers, 11, 57-70.

14.

Hamza

(2010). International experience: An opportunity for professional development in higher education. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14(1), 50-69.

15.

Hopkins

J. R.

(1999). Studying abroad as a form of experiential education. Liberal Education, 85(3), 36-41.

16.

Howard

Keller

(2009). Study tours: Strategies for serving business students. Journal of International Business Education, 4, 135-150.

17.

Hummer

J. F.

Pederson

E. R.

Mizra

LaBrie

J. W.

(2010). Factors associated with general and sexual alcohol related-consequences: An examination of college students studying abroad. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 47, 427-444.

18.

Jung

C. G.

(1968). Aion: Researches into the phenomenology of the self: The collected works of C. G. Jung ( G.

Adler

R. F. C.

Hull

, Trans., Vol. 9, 2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

19.

Kitsantas

(2004). Studying abroad: The role of college students’ goals on the development of cross-cultural skills and global understanding. College Student Journal, 38, 441-452.

20.

Kostera

Kociatkiewicz

(2010). Experiencing the shadow. Organizational exclusion and denial within experience economy. Organization, 17, 257-282.

21.

Leuthge

D. J.

(2004). Perceived risk and risk reduction strategies in study abroad programs. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 15(4), 23-45.

22.

Lokkesmoe

K. J.

Kuchinke

K. P.

Ardichvili

(2016). Developing cross-cultural awareness through foreign immersion programs. European Journal of Training and Development, 40, 155-170.

23.

Lutterman-Aguilar

Gingerich

(2002). Experiential pedagogy for study abroad: Educating for global citizenship. Frontiers, 8, 41-82.

24.

Miller-Perrin

Thompson

(2014). Outcomes of global education: External and internal change associated with study abroad. New Directions for Student Services, 146, 77-89.

25.

Nikolova

Andersen

(2017). Creating shared value through service-learning in management education. Journal of Management Education, 41, 750-780.

26.

Olson

J. E.

Lalley

(2012). Evaluating a short-term, first-year study abroad program for business and engineering undergraduates: Understanding the student learning experience. Journal of Education for Business, 87, 325-332.

27.

Paige

R. M.

Harvey

T. A.

McCleary

K. S.

(2012). The maximizing study abroad project: Toward a pedagogy for culture and language learning. In Vande Berg

Paige

R. M.

Lou

H. K.

(Eds.), Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they’re not, and what we can do about it (pp. 308-334). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

28.

Peng

A. C.

Van Dyne

(2015). The influence of motivational cultural intelligence on cultural effectiveness based on study abroad: The moderating role of participant’s cultural identity. Journal of Management Education, 39, 572-596.

29.

Sachau

Brasher

Fee

(2010). Three models for short-term study abroad. Journal of Management Education, 34, 645-670.

30.

Sandgren

Elig

Hovde

Krejci

Rice

(1999). How international experience affects teaching: Understanding the impact of faculty study abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education, 3(1), 33-56.

31.

Stone

M. J.

Petrick

J. F.

(2013). The educational benefits of travel experiences: A literature review. Journal of Travel Research, 52, 731-744.

32.

Sutton

R. C.

Rubin

D. L.

(2004). The Glossari Project: Initial findings from a system-wide research initiative on study abroad learning outcomes. Frontiers, 10, 65-82.

33.

Whalen

(2015). The management and funding of US study abroad. International Higher Education, 50, 15-16.

34.

Wright

N. D.

Larsen

(2016). Vacation to Beerland: Alcohol and the study abroad experience. Academy of Marketing Studies Journal, 20, 73-88.

35.

Zhuang

King

Carnes

(2015). Studying abroad: Understanding the relationships among beliefs, perceived value, and behavioral intentions. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 26(1), 32-45.