Leading for Quality: Reflection on School Heads Roles and Tasks in Promoting Quality Education in Tanzania Community Secondary Schools

Abstract

This study examined the roles and tasks of school heads in promoting quality education in community secondary schools in Tanzania. Specifically, it assessed the contribution of school principals’ administrative roles and tasks, as well as their supervision of classroom pedagogical practices. The study adopted a qualitative approach, utilizing a case study design in the Arusha District. Purposive sampling was employed toget leaders and simple random to get teachers sample size 38 informants. The methods used for data collection include interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and documentary review. Content analysis was used to analyze the data. The findings reveal that while there was a school vision in place, there were weaknesses in communicating and preparing action plans to effectively implement the vision and foster team commitment. However, the study reveled that school academic records are properly maintained. It also uncovered that school heads lack the necessary skills and knowledge to ascertain the importance of record keeping in enhancing quality education. Additionally, the study reveals that the efficiency of record keeping is hindered by the lack of technological devices, such as computers, and the absence of electricity in most schools. Furthermore, the study finds that school heads are able to manage school finances, but they lack sufficient funds to effectively carry out school activities. Moreover, the study highlights that most school heads have inadequate skills in supervising classroom instruction. Therefore, the study recommends capacity building in leadership, management, and classroom instruction supervision skills to enhance the provision of quality education in schools.

Keywords

quality education school leadership administrative tasks school-community relations,and instruction supervision

Introduction

The issue of quality education has been a prominent global concern for a significant period of time, with the provision of high-quality education being the ultimate objective of education systems worldwide. Taahyadin and Daud (2018) define the quality of education as the various aspects of affairs that occur in the school including administration, teaching and learning, co-curriculum, student development projects and school environment. UNICEF (2000) sees the quality education as a process in which well-trained teachers employ student-centered teaching methods within well-managed classrooms and schools, utilizing skillful assessment techniques to facilitate learning and reduce disparities. The Declaration on Education for All (EFA) has emphasized the need for improved quality of education and recommended that the education provided to learners should be more relevant (UNESCO, 2005b). The achievement of quality education relies on effective school leadership and the capacity of leaders to enhance the teaching and learning process, among other factors (Urio, 2012). Consequently, schools, through the implementation of sound leadership practices, bear the responsibility of supervising teachers and assisting students in developing creativity, as well as acquiring the necessary skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes required for responsible, active, and productive citizenship (Osaki, 2000, 2009).

However, the regions of sub-Saharan Africa, specifically East Africa and Tanzania, are currently facing challenges in their efforts to enhance the quality education in schools. According to a report by UNESCO (2005a), one of the main obstacles to achieving quality education in Ghana is the absence of efficient and effective leadership and management by school principals. Similarly, the study conducted in Kenya (Githua & Nyabwa, 2008) have revealed that the poor academic performance of students in secondary schools can be attributed to the inadequate leadership practices of school heads. Furthermore, a study by Grauve (2001) asserts that many school heads in Tanzania are heavily involved in administrative tasks, neglecting their pedagogical responsibilities. This lack of focus on teaching and learning leaves little time for the supervision and support of staff and students, ultimately impacting the quality of education provided (Lwaitama and Galabawa, 2008).

Tanzania, situated in Sub-Saharan Africa, is one of the countries in the region with a population of over sixty million. It is categorized as one of the East African countries transitioning from a lower income status to a middle-income status. Similar to other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and specifically Eastern Africa, Tanzania faces challenges in improving the quality of its education system, which currently fails to meet the expectations of its stakeholders. A study conducted by Tshabangu and Msafiri (2013) on the quality of education in Tanzania revealed that despite commendable efforts by the government to increase funding in education, the investment has not sufficiently met the expectations and satisfaction of citizens in terms of quality education. This may be attributed to the neglect of the education sector in previous years. Consequently, stakeholders express dissatisfaction with the education system’s inability to meet their expectations. Sallis (2005) asserts that quality education entails meeting and surpassing the needs and desires of customers. Several factors contribute to this situation for instance, World Bank (2018) attributed the learning crisis to education systems struggling to foresee in one or more of four key school-level ingredients for learning: unprepared students, poor teaching quality, focus on educational inputs that do not drive learning, and weak school leadership.

Despite the challenges, the literature suggests that the role of school leaders in promoting the quality of education is secondary to that of teachers, who have a significant impact on classroom teaching, quality, and performance (Sumiran et al., 2022). Furthermore, the quality of teachers is undoubtedly influenced by a school leader who possesses the requisite skills and competencies to foster quality learning environment (Sumiran et al., 2022). In this regard, the strategic vision of the school leader is crucial in identifying supportive factors, such as a conducive environment, that facilitate the implementation of quality education and enhance self-awareness and commitment to the school community (Sholekah & Mahmudah, 2020).

In the aim of enhancing the standard of education, it is imperative for school administrators to oversee all aspects of school operations, including classroom instruction, which necessitates a certain level of knowledge and expertise (Hoadley et al., 2009). This underscores the notion that the absence of effective leadership within educational institutions poses a significant obstacle to achieving high-quality education. Adhikari & Poudyal (2020) argue that a successful implementation of strategies aimed at optimizing human and physical resources, as well as the efficient utilization of school time to promote quality education, is heavily contingent upon the effectiveness of leadership at both the school and classroom levels. Leaders and in particular heads of school who possess an understanding of effective leadership characteristics are able to sustain school quality improvement (Urio, 2014). Consequently, the role of a school administrator assumes paramount importance in establishing an environment conducive to learning and influencing teachers’ commitment to remain in their respective teaching positions (Day, 2011).

Numerous studies have been conducted on the subject of the roles of school leaders in promoting the quality education in various countries, with only a limited number of studies conducted in Tanzania (Nguni, 2005; Ngirwa, 2006; Logatian et al., 2021; Tshabangu & Msafiri, 2013). Unfortunately, there is a scarce research studies that has investigated the roles of school leaders in improving the provision of quality education in community secondary schools in Tanzania. The principal objective of this study was to assess the roles and tasks of school heads in promoting quality education in community secondary schools. This article aims to address three primary research questions: firstly, what is the strategic vision for school development and how does it contribute to the advancement of quality education; Secondly, in what ways do the administrative roles and tasks of school principals contribute to the promotion of quality education; and finally, how do school principals supervise classroom instruction to ensure the provision of quality education?

Literature Review

The correlation between the leadership role of the head of school and the attainment of quality education at the school level has been widely recognized (Adhikari & Poudyal, 2020). Educators perceive quality education in their schools as the fulfillment of the objectives established by the school and society, the development of students’ abilities and accomplishments, and the capacity to address educational challenges (Jidamva, 2012). Based on this understanding, if the school head lacks sufficient competence, they will be unable to meet these expectations of the educators. In Tanzanian secondary schools, one of the primary responsibilities of school heads is to ensure the achievement of quality education by guaranteeing the implementation of the curriculum in accordance with established standards and regulations. The school head is entrusted with creating a favorable environment within the school setting, ensuring that teachers are effectively delivering instruction and students are actively engaged in learning, and aligning the mission and vision of the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST) with the objectives of the school (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 2009). Consequently, the heads of secondary schools play a pivotal role in ensuring the attainment of quality education, which encompasses establishing a strategic vision for the school, fulfilling administrative duties, and supervising classroom activities.

The Vision statement for School Development

The concept of vision encompasses the ability to imagine and envision a desired future state. It serves as a guiding force and can offer a sense of purpose, as well as provide specific details regarding the aspirations of an educational institution. Sergiovanni (2007) views vision as an inspiring declaration that has the power to create and communicate a desired state of affairs, thereby instilling commitment among organizational members. Logatian et al. (2021) insists heads of schools to have vision and plan to implement the vision as well as work to develop high expectations, develop relationships with teachers, be supportive, and enable teachers to effectively teach students. In contrary, Tatum (2013) argues that some leaders think that developing the vision is all that is necessary. If they have not planned for implementing that vision, the development of the vision has been a wasted effort. Heads of schools play a crucial role in establishing direction and cultivating a positive school culture (Day, Pam, & Gorgen, 2020). As leaders within the school system, heads of schools are responsible for formulating the institution’s vision statement and effectively communicating it to foster a collaborative vision. Additionally, Kosel (2011) asserts that school leaders are instrumental in developing and utilizing a vision that can propel their schools towards improved educational quality. Effective school leaders inspire (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003) others by providing a clear sense of purpose and direction, achieved through the creation of a shared vision centered on academic excellence. In this context, the strategic vision of the school head is crucial in identifying supportive factors, such as a conducive environment, that facilitate the implementation of quality education and enhance self-awareness and commitment within the school community (Sholekah & Mahmudah, 2020).

Kose1 (2011) explains that educational stakeholders must recognize the importance of an explicit shared vision, which is communicated through the school’s values and provides a future-oriented framework for decision-making, as well as potentially coordinating school-wide efforts. Furthermore, Kuluchumila (2014) emphasizes that the head of school, as a leader, is expected to support teachers in moving towards positive outcomes to ensure effective student learning, thereby promoting the provision of quality education. Spillane (2019) emphasizes the role of leaders in fostering effective communication and collaboration within schools. Emphasize is made to the importance of transparency and inclusivity in decision-making processes (Bryk et al., 2018; Hargreaves & O'Connor, 2020). Thus, the vision must be created communicated and the plans to implement the vision must be clear and collaborative.

School Heads Administrative Tasks and Quality Education

The responsibilities and duties of school administrators encompass a multitude of tasks, including the management of teachers, students, curriculum, physical and financial resources, extracurricular activities, community relations, and overall school administration. Mpaata and Mpaata (2018) contend that by effectively administering and managing the school, monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage, and engaging with the community, the heads of school are fulfilling their essential roles and tasks. Uyanga (2008) argues that the head of school is tasked with identifying and establishing goals and objectives for the school that align with national objectives, analyzing tasks, and delegating responsibilities to staff based on their specialization and expertise. Harris and Chapman (2018) emphasize the need for school leaders to adopt a holistic approach that considers both educational goals and the well-being of the school community. Additionally, the head of school is responsible for ensuring that school records are accurately maintained. Amanchukwu and Ololube (2015) define school records as books, documents, diskettes, and files that contain information on the school’s activities and other relevant information pertaining to its growth and development. Therefore, it is imperative that the resources necessary for the school to achieve its objectives and important records are securely stored for future retrieval purposes.

Enhancing the educational standards of schools necessitates the cultivation of a positive rapport with parents and the community, with particular emphasis on the involvement of school leaders in fostering such a relationship (Hoadley et al., 2009). Mulford (2003) posited that the framework established by school leadership should be harmonized with the learning process, thereby garnering support from both the school staff and the community, ultimately ensuring a conducive environment for education. Ejionueme (2015) affirmed that collaborative efforts enable individuals within the school and the surrounding community to exchange ideas and knowledge, thereby fostering a sense of connection among members in schools and community respectively. Bryson and Crosby (2018), add that the community partnerships are integral to the success of educational institutions and quality education.

School Heads Supervision of Classroom Instructions and Quality

The role of the head of school as instructional leaders places them in advantageous positions to oversee, monitor, evaluate, and disseminate up-to-date information on educational matters and contemporary teaching methods to teachers (Danbaba et al., 2021). This is done with the aim of inspiring teachers to engage in scholarly pursuits and adopt best practices in curriculum delivery. The World Bank (2010) contends that school heads have a significant role to play in influencing how teachers allocate their time to teaching and how students respond to their instruction and learning. Lunenburg (2010) argues that it is the responsibility of school heads to supervise classroom instruction, which encompasses interpreting syllabi, selecting teaching techniques, utilizing teaching and learning materials, delivering lessons, and assessing and evaluating learning outcomes. Urio (2018) further asserts that supervising instruction within the school is a fundamental activity of school heads. These supervisory roles are needed in daily basis as advocated by MoEVT (2011) in suggesting that effective school pedagogical supervision should be done on daily basis to ensure quality teaching and learning.

The study (Hoadley et al. 2009) found that heads of school engaged their deputies, heads of department, and directors of studies to conduct their day-to-day instructions in their schools. It was also revealed that classroom visits and observation of teaching and learning significantly influence student-learning outcomes in secondary schools. This means that heads of schools expected to lead their schools through collaboration and shared decision making with teachers and other staff members to make sure that every individual plays their role effectively. According to UNESCO (2005b), the attainment of quality education in a school is contingent upon the establishment of a supportive organizational structure by the head of the school. The influence of heads of school extends beyond direct improvements in teaching and learning, as they also possess the capacity to significantly impact staff motivation, commitment, and working conditions. The working conditions of teachers, in turn, have the potential to affect their ability to deliver quality education. The prevailing belief among the majority of individuals and educational stakeholders is that the provision of quality education is closely associated with teachers, as they occupy a central role in curriculum development and implementation (Sumiran et al., 2022). The impact of leadership on student learning is primarily attributed to the reinforcement of a professional community. The engagement of teachers within this professional community facilitates the implementation of instructional practices that are positively correlated with student achievement (Wahlstrom et al., 2010). Consequently, positive learning outcomes are generally observed within quality learning environments. These learning environments encompass both the physical and psychosocial domains, as well as the provision of services by the head of the school for both teachers and students (Oduro & MacBeath, 2003).

However, previous research conducted by Nguni (2005) and Ngirwa (2006) has indicated a lack of emphasis on instructional leadership practices in secondary schools by school heads. Lwaitama and Galabawa (2008) further highlight that although school heads possess the necessary qualifications for their positions, they often lack adequate supervisory skills due to a lack of training in instructional supervision. Therefore, possessing the required qualifications does not guarantee effective performance in a supervisory role. Instead, additional professional development is necessary to enable school heads to meet the required standards and promote high-quality education within their schools. Mpaata and Mpaata (2018) argue that providing in-service training to school heads is essential not only for motivation purposes but also to equip them with the necessary competencies to closely monitor both classroom teaching and the resources provided by the government to schools.

Conceptual Framework

This paper aims to explore the administrative roles and task areas of school heads in maintaining quality education and improving the elements that contribute to quality education in schools. School administration involves the integration of efforts from school personnel, including staff members, students, and parents, and the utilization of appropriate resources to effectively promote students’ academic performance and the advancement of quality education (Thungu et al., 2010). It is crucial to ensure that the desires and needs of both students and management are clearly communicated in the school setting. The failure of schools to provide students with the necessary academic skills can have a detrimental impact on their future prospects (Mayer et al., 2000). However, Holliman (2017) suggests that teachers who demonstrate high levels of performance and commitment can still innovate and influence students’ attitudes towards school, despite resource limitations. Furthermore, teachers who possess strong values and beliefs and are committed to their work can establish norms that benefit the school and its students through effective school leadership. Despite teachers’ commitment in carrying out their duties, supervision of pedagogical practice by school heads have been found to have positive impact to teachers’ commitment and preparedness in teaching. This paper focuses on aspects of facilitating quality education such as setting of school vision and its communication, ensuring planning for curriculum implementation, students’ records, financial management, community relations and supervision of teachers. Understanding the roles played by school heads in implementing these elements and how they contribute to quality education is imperative for opening up a room for promotion of quality education in secondary schools.

Methods

This study employed a qualitative approach in collecting and analyzing data. The approach was chosen over other approaches because it allowed an in-depth assessment of the roles of school heads in promoting quality education in secondary schools in Tanzania. Qualitative approach as defined by Creswell & Creswell (2018) facilitates the assessment and understanding of the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. It is valid in this study because it locates the researcher in the real world of the phenomenon under study. The approach consists of a set of interpretive and material practices that make the world visible and realistic; which means that it studies things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). This approach enabled researchers to get direct explanations and views of informants about the topic under assessment and relate the behavior of groups to the wider context. It employed a case study design to assess the roles of school heads in promoting quality education in secondary schools. The design acts as a road map for addressing the study’s objectives and answering its questions Creswell et al. (2011). According to Creswell (2015) and Gaikwad (2017) a ‘case’ is a phenomenon or an object of study in which a researcher engages in an in-depth analysis.

The study was conducted in Arusha District in Arusha region. This area was chosen to be the representative of other regions and districts since the roles of heads of school cut across all schools and regions. Six community secondary schools under government and community support were utilized for the study. The study used a sample size of thirty eight (38) respondents including one (1) District Secondary Education Officer (DSEO), one (1) Zonal Chief School Quality Assurance (ZCSQA), six (6) school heads, thirty (30) teachers. Teachers were selected using simple random technique based on their gender. Simple random technique is advantageous because all respondents have an equal chance to participate in the study due to their characteristics.

Purposive sampling technique was employed to get the school heads, (1) District Secondary Education Officer (DSEO), one (1) Zonal Chief School Quality Assurance (ZCSQA) and six (6) school heads. These participants were purposely selected by virtue of their positions. For the DSEO he was selected because he is the custodian of all secondary school information related to the roles played by the heads of school in a district therefore it was important to contact this office so as to triangulate the collected data. In regard to the ZCSQA, was selected due to the fact that the officer is the custodian of all matters related to quality educations in all secondary schools in the regions under his office. Therefore data related to quality were easily captured from this office so as to complement heads of school roles with the quality of education offered.

The study used interview to collect data from ZCSQA, DSEO and six heads of school. The interview lasted between 30 to 40 minutes. Focus Group Discussion was conducted to 5 groups of teachers and it took between 40 and 60 minutes. The roles of the researcher were to introduce the subject, guide the discussion, take notes and keep participants focused on the theme and encourage follow-up questions. The researcher used probing questions to steer the conversation or clarify some issues emanating from the discussion. The documentary review was used to collect secondary data related to school calendar. Different records kept in schools such as meeting files, academic files, disciplinary files, self reliance files, students attendance register, teachers attendance book etc. were reviewed to verify availability and how these contributed to quality education as the roles that are performed by school head through various departments. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic and content analysis techniques. Thus, responses to specific questions were classified and organized into categories, which were established into themes before the data analysis. Finally data were coded and then analyzed according to the themes and meanings expressed through words for their contribution to their research objectives. Results were presented in a narrative format whereby quotations were used to represent informants’ voices.

Ethical considerations were also observed including following all the research principles. The researchers obtained an introductory letter from the Vice Chancellor’s office for conducting this study which introduced us to the Regional level; from there we could access other lower levels, from the district level to the school level. This was to ensure that participants are treated with respect and sensitivity beyond what may be required by law. Sensitive data, were dealt with anonymously. The study did not include names of participants or names of their schools so as to ensure anonymity Israel and Hay (2006). The researchers provided a consent form for the informers to read and volunteer to participate in the study. The researchers allowed the participant to join the study and withdraw from the study at any time.

Results

Statement of the Vision for School Development

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the strategic vision for school development and its role in advancing quality education. Information pertaining to this objective was gathered from school administrators and teachers. To address this initial objective, four research questions were formulated, subsequently analyzed, and systematically presented in the following sections and subsections:

Availability of the School Vision

The initial inquiry under the first objective sought to determine whether schools possessed a clear vision. Six school heads were interviewed to assess the presence of a school vision. The results disclosed that these schools did have established visions; however, there was a notable shortfall in their effective implementation. One of the five interviewed school heads succinctly remarked:

Yes, I do have a vision to enhance the school, but the issue lies in the lack of funds. Consequently, I deemed it impractical to vocalize aspirations that I acknowledge are financially unattainable. I chose silence, not because I lack a vision for my school, but due to the pragmatic realization of budgetary constraints.” (Interview, Head school B).

Also fund received from the government could not enable school heads to fulfill their vision which incudes building laboratories and libraries, which were the major shortcomings that needed to be worked on. Another school head was quoted saying that:

“The school vision was already in place when I assumed my role. Given my lack of expertise in creating a new one, I opted to adhere to the existing vision. This decision has proven beneficial, as it enables us to uphold specific school objectives, thereby contributing to the attainment of quality education in our school.” (Interview, Head school A).

The District School Education Officer (DSEO) emphasized the imperative for every school to formulate and enact their individual school visions. He asserted, “All secondary schools must possess a vision to steer them in maintaining a trajectory toward achieving quality education within their respective institutions” (Interview, DSEO). Conversely, the Zonal Chief for Secondary Quality Assurance (ZCSQA) addressed the responsibilities of school heads concerning educational quality. She reported that:

“Many school heads generally adhere to the school vision in alignment with quality assurance standards while carrying out their duties and responsibilities. Nevertheless, in certain areas, the desired outcomes are not consistently achieved due to factors related to the school environment and the preparedness of some teachers in specific schools.” (Interview, ZCSQA).

School community awareness of the school vision

The majority of teachers reported a lack of familiarity with the school vision, while few indicated awareness. One teacher admitted, “I’m aware of the existence of the school vision, although I cannot articulate its specifics.” (FGD, teacher school D,). Another participant expressed uncertainty, stating, “I don’t know if there is such a thing as a school vision. I believe it's specific to school leadership and not relevant to a regular teacher like me” (FGD, teacher school D).

Furthermore, a teacher from School C remarked, “I’m only partially aware of the school vision. It’s not emphasized much because, whether it’s present or not, my role is simply to teach according to the prescribed government guidelines. (FGD, teacher school C).” This suggests inadequate awareness within the school community regarding the school vision. Consequently, the responsibility of school heads to establish, communicate, and oversee activities, especially in teaching and learning, aimed at achieving academic excellence, remains unfulfilled. This lack of awareness contributes to a decline in the quality of education.

Preparation of the School Action Plan to Realise the Vision

The third question aimed to determine if schools had developed a school action plan to translate the vision into action. The findings revealed that the majority of teachers were unaware of the school action plan, and a significant number of school heads admitted to not having prepared one. Both the DSEO and ZCSQA echoed these observations, attributing the issue to a lack of training opportunities for school heads. The DSEO candidly stated:

“Honestly, most school heads do not prepare action plans, and this is a significant problem. The root cause is their inadequate exposure to leadership and management training beyond what they learned in the classroom during their time in college or university. How can they be expected to prepare school action plans?” (Interview, DSEO).

The ZCSQA expressed a similar sentiment, asserting, “It is common for school heads not to prepare action plans” (Interview, ZCSQA). These consistent perspectives raise concerns about the feasibility of achieving quality education when schools lack action plans to actualize their vision. For respondents who disclosed that their schools devised school action plans, the researchers explored whether these plans were ever put into practice. When questioned, the ZCSQA was candid, stating,

“It is amusing to inquire about the implementation of school action plans when there is no action plan prepared. How can you implement something you have not prepared yet? But for the few I happened to monitor, they are making an effort, though not fully there yet” (Interview, ZCSQA).

The researchers further investigated the effectiveness of the stated action plans. According to the majority of teachers, even when action plans were prepared, they were not practically implemented. Only a few teachers indicated that school action plans were implemented when created. Notably, it was observed that, even when school action plans were devised, teachers were not involved in their creation. Consequently, they saw little reason to engage with plans they had no part in designing. This sentiment is evident in the comments of one teacher who asserted, “…it was not my responsibility but for the school management. It is the school head’s role” (Teachers, FGD, School E). The lack of teacher participation in designing and creating school action plans diminished their motivation to implement activities outlined in the plans, regardless of their quality. Moreover, in some secondary schools, the responsibility of preparing school action plans is delegated to individual departments rather than being a collaborative effort involving the entire school. School head highlighted this kind of approach as remarked, “The school action plan is prepared and implemented by departments” (Head, Interview, School F).

School Heads Administrative Tasks and Quality Education

The researchers aimed to understand the administrative roles of school heads and their impact on quality education. To address the this objective, four specific roles/tasks were examined: Preparation and implementation of the school calendar, Maintenance of students’ academic, records, financial management, and School community relations.

Preparation and Implementation of the School Calendar

This study revealed that secondary school heads largely take the initiative to prepare a comprehensive school calendar, which is subsequently utilized at both the school and department levels. A teacher shared insights that:

“Our school head ensures the school calendar is in place before the commencement of activities. This is coordinated at the management level. Teachers receive information and access the calendar as needed for semester scheme of work planning and lesson plans.” (FGD, Teachers, School C).

Upon analysis, it was determined that the calendar effectively captured most activities for the year. However, comments from some school heads suggested a lack of commitment among the school community to read and follow up on calendar-related announcements posted on school notice boards. One head teacher remarked, “We prepare the school calendar, and it is posted on the notice board, but very few members of the school community read and use the information.” (Head school D) This indicates a tendency among many students and teachers to have a low inclination towards seeking information about their schools.

Students Academic Records Keeping

Although the findings indicated good practice in keeping records, after interview with most of the informants, it was noted that most of school heads are less knowledgeable about record kept by subordinate and how they promoted quality of education and students ‘performance. Other documents, which were assessed, lacked information with heads of school’s comments based on teaching practices after assessing teachers’ professional books and students’ class journals. This is because they did not do these themselves; they claimed to be assisted by their subordinates in keeping their school records as one indicated; “We have a school management team. I sometimes delegate to them some roles that I cannot perform due to administrative activities”(head interview school A). Although the delegation is not prohibited because it helps to build leadership abilities, at the end of the day heads of school are responsible for performing all delegated activities. It is important to stress that record keeping is an important leadership role. In order to keep records, some equipment is required. During documentary analysis, it was noted that quite a good number of schools were faced with challenges of keeping records using technology which is caused by lack or inadequate electricity and electronic devices such as computers, flash discs and compact discs. This leads to poor records management to some of the schools and it affects quality of education.

Heads of School Financial Management Capacity

Results show that persons involved in school budget planning and management are the school heads in collaboration with the school management team (SMT). This implies that a school head is completely recognized as an accounting officer with his/her SMT to plan for the school budget and he/she is solely accountable for effective school finance. One school head highlighted, “The school has a budget plan, and its directives align with the Education and Training Policy. The budget plan guides me in procuring various school items, “(Head, Interview, School A). The study uncovered that the government authorized schools to manage funds through their school heads. Capitation grants are directly deposited into school bank accounts. Some school heads acknowledged that directives from the central authority largely offer guidelines on managing school funds, though it was challenging initially. The DSEO’s responses regarding the adequacy of capitation grants did not directly address the question. The DSEO explained,

“...the head of school, together with his/her School Management Team (SMT), has to plan for the received funds according to their school needs to ensure all activities at the school are optimally performed. Even though the funds is not sufficient, the management has no right to blame, it must use the available funds to run the school” (Interview, DSEO).

Contribution of School Heads in Supervision of Classroom Instructions

Regarding the oversight of classroom instruction for the delivery of quality education, the majority of respondents emphasized their pivotal role in supervising teaching and learning processes. School heads, in particular, reported engaging in supervision through routine assessments of teachers’ professional records, encompassing the evaluation of schemes of work, lesson plans, and daily classroom records. A school head highlighted this approach:

“I have a practice of overseeing classroom instruction. While I don't typically visit classrooms, I regularly review their schemes of work and lesson plans. If I identify any issues, I discuss them with a teacher concerned” (Interview, head school B).

Despite these efforts, one head teacher expressed concern about the inadequate understanding of classroom supervision among many school heads due to a lack of training. The emphasis on scrutinizing teachers' documents, according to the head teacher, neglects the broader assessment of classroom instruction quality. The head from school C stressed the need for classroom observations and meaningful professional discussions as she said:

“Most school heads have a limited understanding of classroom supervision. Ensuring teachers have the necessary documents is a minor concern in assessing the quality of classroom instruction. We need to conduct classroom observations to understand how teaching occurs in real settings and engage in fruitful professional discussions...” (Interview, Head, school C).

One teacher saw the reviews as a formality as she commented;

Some times school heads approved teachers’ schemes of work and lesson plans; they signed without paying attention to the content written on those documents. That review of teachers’ professional records by school heads is just done as a formality but does not influence effective classroom supervision. (FGD, teacher school A).

The suggestion has arisen that school administrators should not rely solely on teachers’ professional records, but rather actively engage with and address the challenges faced by teachers in the classroom, avoiding a passive role as mere identifiers of errors. Nevertheless, school administrators have mentioned engaging in regular professional dialogues with classroom teachers and reviewing their documentation, although they perceive these activities as being done merely for formalities and not contributing classroom supervision. However, it has been observed that many head teachers lack the essential supervisory skills required for effective oversight.

Discussion

The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the functions and obligations of school heads in advancing the quality of education in community secondary schools. The study findings indicate that school heads possess a vision but encounter obstacles in its implementation, particularly due to financial constraints. The incongruity between the vision of school heads and their struggles in executing it due to financial limitations aligns with broader discussions on the resource constraints faced by educational leaders. As Kuluchumila (2014) notes, the inability to secure funds to execute their vision by lacking essential infrastructure, such as laboratories and libraries, underscores the critical need for strategic planning and financial management skills among school administrators. Similarly, the majority of teachers were unaware of the school vision, while few were well-informed, draws attention to the pivotal role of vision in organizational dynamics. This is consistent with Sergiovanni’s (2007) perspective, viewing vision as an inspirational statement that creates and communicates a view of a desired state of affairs, fostering commitment among organizational members. The study raises a critical question about the developmental trajectory of schools where a significant portion of teachers lacks awareness of the overarching vision.

The lack of awareness about the school vision is a contributing factor to poor quality education and aligns with the broader understanding that a shared vision is essential for organizational growth and goal attainment. The study findings challenge the view presented by Leithwood and Riehl (2003), who argue that effective school leaders inspire others by providing a clear sense of purpose and direction through creating a shared vision focused on academic excellence. In contrast, the study suggests that the absence of teacher awareness about the school vision hampers the achievement of academic directions, thereby contributing to optimal educational outcomes. The study align with Tatum (2013), emphasizing that a school without a vision is more likely to remain stagnant or fail, reinforces the significance of a shared vision in educational settings. The call to communicate the vision to empower the school community and foster teamwork aligns with contemporary leadership models that emphasize the importance of shared vision and collective effort for organizational success. The study’s findings brought to light a significant gap in both teacher and school head awareness and engagement with school action plans. Notably, a majority of teachers were found to be unfamiliar with the existence of a school action plan, and school heads candidly acknowledged not having prepared one. Supporting this apprehension, Logation et al. (2021) echo the importance of school heads possessing a clear vision and an actionable plan to bring that vision to fruition. They emphasize the need for school leaders to cultivate high expectations, foster meaningful relationships with teachers, provide support, and empower educators to deliver effective instruction. Their insights align with the present study, underscoring the indispensability of specific strategies and well-defined plans in realizing academic success within a school. Logation et al. (2021) emphasis on visionary leadership and strategic planning resonates with this concern, emphasizing that quality education is unlikely to materialize in the absence of deliberate, well-articulated plans and strategies.

Examining the implementation of school action plans, the study emphasizes the importance of not only formulating a vision but also developing and executing comprehensive action plans for the improvement of quality education. This resonates with Tatum (2013), who contends that having a vision alone is insufficient; meticulous planning for its implementation is crucial. The study underscores that failure to implement a stated vision can have detrimental effects, fostering suspicion and unmet expectations within the school community. The call for both school vision and action plans aligns with contemporary leadership literature emphasizing the need for a strategic and actionable approach to educational management. Scholars like Sergiovanni (2005) argue that effective leadership involves not only creating a vision but also translating it into concrete actions and strategies. The study’s emphasis on the potential negative consequences of unimplemented visions underscores the importance of aligning leadership efforts with tangible and achievable goals.

Regarding administrative roles and tasks the findings indicates that the effectiveness of the school calendar in capturing most activities for the year is compromised by a lack of commitment among the school community to read and follow up on calendar-related announcements posted on school notice boards. This indicates a prevailing tendency among many students and teachers to have a low inclination towards seeking information about their schools. Upon examining the meticulous keeping of academic records, it was observed that most school heads possess limited knowledge about the records maintained by their subordinates and how these records contribute to the promotion of quality education and students’ performance. These findings align with the research conducted by Amanchukwu and Ololube (2015), who emphasize the significance of school records in capturing crucial information for the growth and development of the school. It was found that school heads often delegate the responsibility of record-keeping to others. The study highlights the importance of recognizing that while delegation is permissible and contributes to the development of leadership abilities, school heads ultimately bear the responsibility for all delegated activities. This insight emphasizes the necessity of closely following up on delegated tasks to ensure a comprehensive understanding of school operations, thereby enabling effective leadership for quality improvement. Furthermore, the study notes that proper record-keeping is a critical leadership role that requires essential equipment such as computers, flash drives, cabinets, tables, and cupboards. The absence of these tools in many secondary schools raises concerns about the potential hindrance to effective administrative practices. Amanchukwu and Ololube (2015) define school records as books, documents, diskettes, and files that contain information on the school’s activities and other relevant information pertaining to its growth and development.

Examining the process of school budget planning and management, the study reveals that school heads, in collaboration with the school management team (SMT), are primarily responsible for these tasks. The study also highlights that many secondary school heads follow directives from central authorities and set priorities based on school needs. This aligns with the observations made by Davidoff and Lazarus (1997), emphasizing the central role of identifying resource needs for effective resource management in schools. The study implies that inadequate disbursement of funds can lead to a lag in school activities, resulting in potential shortcomings in the delivery of quality education. This underlines the responsibility of school heads and the SMT to ensure the adequacy of disbursed funds to maintain quality education. Incorporating current literature, it’s important to note that the effective management of resources in schools is a multifaceted challenge. Scholars like (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005) argue that effective leadership is crucial for optimizing resource allocation and ensuring positive outcomes. The study, therefore, contributes to the broader discourse on educational leadership and resource management, emphasizing the pivotal role of school heads in navigating these challenges to promote quality education.

The current study noted that heads of school ensured partnership with community around to ensure quality education. Recent research underscores the continued significance of promoting positive relationships between school leaders, staff, and the surrounding community. Mulford’s (2003) assert that a well-balanced system is crucial for creating a safe learning environment resonates with contemporary studies on educational leadership and organizational management. For instance, a study by Harris and Chapman (2018) emphasizes the need for school leaders to adopt a holistic approach that considers both educational goals and the well-being of the school community. The study found inadequate collaboration and insisted heads of schools to collaborate with school community in all aspects. Studies by (Ejionueme’s, 2015; Bryson & Crosby, 2018; Spillane, 2019; Hargreaves & O'Connor, 2020) provides perspective on the benefits of collaboration within schools and the surrounding community and this is further reinforced by recent investigations into the impact of community engagement on educational outcomes. A study by Bryk et al. (2018) suggests that collaboration fosters a sense of shared responsibility and collective efficacy, leading to improved student achievement. This means that working together not only facilitates the exchange of ideas and knowledge but also contributes to a more connected and engaged educational community.

Building upon the insights provided by the informants, the study highlights a critical concern regarding the supervision of classroom instruction by school heads and its impact on the delivery of quality education. The predominant focus on evaluating teachers’ working books, rather than conducting direct classroom observations, emerges as a limitation in the current supervisory practices. This observation aligns with the findings of Nemes and Sharali (2015), who documented a more constructive approach to supervision among head teachers in emphasizing feedback on the actual teaching process and active efforts to motivate teachers for the improvement of struggling students’ performance. Contrary to the positive impact reported by Nemes and Sharali (2015), the study suggests that the supervision processes employed by the school heads in question were not conducive to fostering quality learning environments. The findings are congruency with Urio (2018) who argues that supervising classroom instruction is a core responsibility of school heads, emphasizing the need for effective classroom supervision to promote quality education. The discrepancy between the current findings and Urio (2018) assertion underscores the varied approaches and challenges faced by school leaders in fulfilling their supervisory roles. However, the study suggests that the overall leadership practices of school heads have only a partial contribution to good classroom instruction. The supervisory style, which involves relying heavily on teachers’ professional documents, is identified as a potential hindrance to effective supervision. Findings of the current study revealed that there lack of training on instructional supervision and lack suoervisory skill. This finding concurs with Mpaata and Mpaata (2018) who emphasize the need for in-service training to equip school heads with the competencies required to closely monitor classroom teaching and effectively utilize the available resources. The study challenges the formality of reviewing teachers’ professional documents, highlighting the importance of daily pedagogical supervision, as recommended by MoEVT (2011), for a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of classroom instruction.

Conclusions

The present study identifies a significant connection between the administrative roles and tasks of school heads and the realization of quality education at the school level. Key findings indicate that although heads of schools have visions and some prepared plans, these are not effectively communicated to the larger school community, hindering widespread implementation and commitment. The majority of teachers support the documentation and storage of students’ academic records, but there is a lack of awareness among school heads about how these records contribute to quality education. Insufficient resources, such as computers and electricity, further impede effective record-keeping. Despite effective financial management and control, insufficient funds compared to expenditures were reported. School heads were found to promote good relations within the school community through teamwork and professional learning. However, inadequacies in classroom instruction supervisory skills were identified, with teachers lacking coaching and support services for classroom practices. Consequently, the study concludes that poor quality education in community secondary schools in Tanzania is a result of ineffective leadership by school heads. The recommendations include involving teachers in the preparation and implementation of school action plans, ensuring proper communication of school plans to staff for joint implementation, and providing adequate funds for quality improvement by Local Government Authorities. Additionally, leadership and management training for school heads post-appointment is advised to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge for effective school leadership, ultimately contributing to the promotion of quality education.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Perpetua J. Urio

Joseph Manase

Author Biographies

Perpetua John Urio (PhD) is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, Management and Lifelong Learning at the University of Dar es salaam (UDSM). Her research interest areas are school leadership, professional and career development, mentorship and gender issues. She has published articles in her areas of interest and she has lead different international projects.

Joseph Manase (PhD) is a lecturer in the department of eduational foudations and lifeling learning, of the University of Dar es Salaa, Dar es Salaam University College of Education. my teaching and research areas are teachers professional development, entrepreneurial management and lifelong learning. Has been supervising postgraduate students in different ducation based topics.

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