Assisting Students With High-Incidence Disabilities to Pursue Careers in Science,Technology,Engineering,and Mathematics

Low Expectations

Teacher expectations of students in their classrooms have long been a topic of study in educational literature (Brophy & Good, 1970; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968; Rubie-Davies, 2010; Weinstein, 2002; Weinstein, Marshall, Sharp, & Botkin, 1987). In general, this body of research has found that teachers have differential expectations for students in their classrooms. Although the impact of teacher expectations has been well documented, it has also been found that during the early secondary years, the effects of teachers’ expectation bias may be partly dissipated; however, the bias remains stable over time (de Boer, Bosker, & vander Werf, 2010). Teachers need to be aware of the potential impact their expectations may have on their students, particularly in the influential early secondary years. This is the time when persistence in STEM education can be nurtured and interest in careers in these areas cultivated, or tragically discouraged and, even worse, dismissed.

Inability to Access Content

In addition to the barrier of low expectations, students with disabilities often face other issues associated with gaining access to content. Many students with disabilities need nontraditional ways of learning and an array of teaching methods (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2002). For example, many teachers lack the knowledge and skills to meaningfully include students with disabilities in math and science courses (Rule et al., 2009). That is, they do not know how to adapt instruction and materials so that content is easier to understand and remember (e.g., use of graphic organizers, multiple means of presenting material) and do not know how to provide appropriate accommodations (e.g., progress updates, taking exams in smaller units).

Table 1 provides strategies and examples for encouraging involvement and preparation for STEM based on Tim’s experiences. These and additional strategies are described in more detail in the remainder of this article.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 1.

Transition Planning Strategies and Examples for Assisting and Encouraging Involvement in STEM

Strategy	Example from case study
Encourage students and provide positive experiences	Tim’s earlier positive experience in geometry provided him with the positive self-perception that he could handle the more challenging content of algebra 2 with trigonometry. Tim also felt more assured of his capabilities when he was assigned to be a teacher’s aide for Mr. Yates, his math teacher.
Equal access to content	After working with Tim, his parents, and Mr. Yates, the counselor found a supportive environment for Tim to take more advanced math classes.
Use of technology to support instruction	Mr. Yates used a SMART Board to capture and then post his notes to his class website. He also sent e-mail reminders for upcoming assignments to Tim and his parents.
Universal design	All students benefited from Mr. Yates’ use of a SMART Board and posted notes.
Provide needed support	Mr. Yates worked with the special education teacher to provide small-group, scaffolded instruction and remediation practice.
Accommodations	With assistance from the special education teacher, Mr. Yates developed an assignment recovery plan to follow after he had been absent because of his health condition. Tim was also allowed to take his exams in smaller units across a number of days.
Mentors	Tim’s uncles played an influential role by talking with him about the family-owned construction business, which cultivated his interest in engineering and building sciences.
Extracurricular activities	Summer camps, such as the Youth Experiences in Science camp Tim attended, provide advanced content exposure and opportunities for ongoing skill development.

Update: Tim is working in the family construction business under the direct supervision of a field engineer. He has attended a summer college preparation course offered by vocational rehabilitation and plans to enter a local community college in the spring after he has saved enough money to move out and live with a roommate. After completing the first 2 years of basic study, his goal is to complete his 4-year degree in building sciences.

Students’ Personal Development

Summers (2008) identified one of the key predictors of persistence in STEM programs as the ability to communicate needs and identify appropriate accommodations. The importance of understanding one’s abilities and needs and being able to communicate them to others was underscored in a U.S. Office of Civil Rights (2011) report that identified attitude and self-advocacy skills of students with disabilities as possibly two of “the most important factors in determining their success or failure in postsecondary education” (Keys to Success section, para. 1). Many of these skills are considered components of self-determination that have been found to be related to positive postschool outcomes (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).

Self-determination has been defined as “a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior. An understanding of one’s strengths and limitations, together with a belief of oneself as capable and effective are essential to self-determination” (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998, p. 2). Many of the skills associated with self-determination, such as acknowledging, understanding, and accepting one’s disability; knowing one’s strengths, weaknesses, and needs; and self-advocating to ensure proper accommodations are provided, have been linked to students with disabilities’ persistence and success in STEM (Cooper & Pruitt, 2005; A. Lee, 2011). Students with hidden disabilities may lack these skills, however, and may face unique and challenging barriers to achieving self-determination (Cooper & Pruitt, 2005; Denhart, 2008; Field, 2008).

Students with disabilities must be able to identify their disability and understand the functional limitations of it (U.S. Office of Civil Rights, 2011). They need to know their abilities, strengths, weaknesses, and individual accommodation needs (Brinckerhoff, 2008; Thoma, Bartholomew, & Scott, 2009). For students with LD, understanding their particular disability and the conditions in which they experience difficulty, knowing their strengths and skills, and knowing how to compensate for their specific disability are particularly important considerations (Kochhar-Bryant, Bassett, & Webb, 2009). For students with ADHD, the assessment of skills and identification of needs in executive functioning (e.g., planning, paying attention, decision making, time management) and the identification of stressors and strategies to decrease stress are key (Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009). Students with EBD in particular need to learn how to recognize symptoms that might signal emotional episodes of disability and build a history of accommodations and their justification (Kochhar-Bryant et al., 2009).

Students must develop self-advocacy skills before entering postsecondary education (A. Lee, 2011). This can be accomplished by using curricula and materials focused on understanding one’s disabilities and legal rights and responsibilities (Price, Gerber, & Mulligan, 2007) and using instructional strategies and environmental considerations, such as modeling, cooperative learning, opportunities for choice, coaching, attribution retraining, and behavioral strategies, to encourage self-determination (Field, 2008). As well, students should be encouraged to explain their disabilities and services needs to teachers and be active participants in IEP or Section 504 meetings.

Access to Content

Students with LD, ADHD, and EBD need school-based supports, including access to the curriculum and encouragement from teachers and related personnel. These supports during the middle and high school years provide students with a foundation to further their postsecondary education in STEM fields. Students need to take more than the minimum number of math and science requirements for graduation. The level of courses is also important. For example, Tyson, Lee, Borman, and Hanson (2007) found that successful completion of a high school physics class has a direct connection to students receiving bachelor’s degrees in STEM fields. In addition, in a study of rigorous high schools, American College Testing (ACT) underscored the importance of students taking algebra II (over and above the more common algebra I and geometry) and chemistry (over and above the more common biology) to meeting or exceeding ACT College Readiness Benchmarks (ACT, 2007).

Universal design, technology, and accommodations have been found to be beneficial for participation in STEM curricula by students with disabilities (AccessSTEM, 2007). Universal design for learning (UDL) targets the concept of access toward learning through flexible curricula and instruction (Bernacchio & Mullen, 2007) and provides many opportunities for students who take courses in STEM. Instructors can apply UDL in their courses by considering such elements as the use of lectures, discussions, videos, printed materials, technology, and field work. Instead of focusing on adapting materials for students, an accessible product can be initially created to benefit everyone (Scott, McGuire, & Shaw, 2003). Although UDL principles benefit all students, they do not eliminate the need for specific accommodations for students with disabilities (Burgstahler, 2007).

Using technology has been recognized as an effective practice to increase students with disabilities’ participation in STEM areas (AccessSTEM, 2007). Computers, assistive technology (AT), and network resources can link the communication and accessibility for students with disabilities (Burgstahler, 1994). Among the many available technologies are variable speech-control tape recorders, reading machines, listening aids, voice output systems that read back text displayed on the computer screen, speech-recognition systems, data managers, and talking calculators.

Unfortunately, the use of AT has often been considered for only those students with severe physical disabilities (H. Lee & Templeton, 2008). AT devices, for example, now help “support students with memory, organization, problem solving, reading, writing, and math” (H. Lee & Templeton, 2008, p. 214). Assistance in these areas is especially relevant to students with high-incidence disabilities because often these students have deficits in these areas.

Technology can also be used to augment students’ learning. For example, digital games and simulations are increasingly being used to raise achievement and prepare students for future technology challenges. One such game, among many, is the Global Challenge World Game, which uses the Microsoft ESP visual simulation platform. The purpose is to offer precollege students opportunities for self-directed learning in STEM. Students participate in an intensive, three-dimensional experience that utilizes computational science, simulation, and telecommunication tools that help them develop an “understanding of the complex nature of global systems that are involved in meeting such challenges as climate change and the future of energy” (Gibson & Grasso, 2008, Synopsis section, para. 1).

The use of accommodations for students with disabilities has continued to draw skepticism and concerns in that some people think that it gives these students an unfair advantage over their peers without disabilities. Brinckerhoff and Banerjee (2007) suggested that persons with disabilities build a case for requesting accommodations. They warned against basing the need for accommodations on a single source of information, whether from a subtest or the individual with the disability himself or herself. This is especially important because too often people do not consider hidden disabilities as legitimate and or in need of accommodations. Taking these suggestions into consideration, the use of appropriate accommodations can be beneficial to students with disabilities.

Experiential Development

An important consideration in preparing students for STEM fields is to supplement their academic programs with applied experiences, including after-school programs, extracurricular activities, mentors, and special programs. These authentic experiences can occur in person or virtually through online exchanges (e.g., blogs, wikis, tweets). In either case, they enhance students’ skills and attitudes toward the STEM areas. Hands-on instruction and applied experiences are acknowledged as effective strategies for increasing the diversity of the STEM field (Liston, Peterson, & Ragan, 2007; Malian, 2007). Not only do they increase content knowledge and learning, but they also contribute to increased self-confidence and career knowledge, motivation, and access (Lam, Doverspike, Zhao, Zhe, & Menzemer, 2008; Malian, 2007; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1992).

Research suggests that these experiences must begin early, no later than middle school, because early learning experiences play a critical role in career development (Lam et al., 2008; Malian, 2007). Early experiences “shape self-efficacy, beliefs, and outcome expectations, which in turn affect the formation of vocational interests, which subsequently influence occupational goals, choice actions and performance attainments” (Lam et al., 2008, p. 22).

Hands-on instruction and experiences can be formal or informal, occurring during the traditional school day or outside of school in a variety of ways. After-school programs are “safe spaces that support healthy social and educational development, teach crucial 21st century skills and promote academic success” (National Partnership for After School Education, n.d., What Is Afterschool? section, para. 1). Growing rapidly, after-school programs have the potential to provide opportunities to cultivate academic, vocational, and social-behavioral success (Fancsali, 2002). These programs can be supplementary to the school curriculum (i.e., aligned with school content) or complementary (i.e., more of a focus on exploration and development of inquiry skills; National Partnership for After School Education, n.d.).

Extracurricular activities are another avenue for helping students get involved in and learn more about STEM fields. They provide opportunities for students to engage in extensions of academic activities, explore career paths, develop confidence in their abilities, and develop a network of other students with similar interests and goals as well as earn recognition for skills through awards and scholarships. These activities can range from school clubs to international competitions and projects. School clubs related to math and science can include astronomy, chess, computer programming, robotics, and ecology. Examples of competitions include Science Olympiad, Math National Science Bowl, American Computer Science League, MATHCOUNTS, BEST Robotics, and Real World Design Challenge. Other programs often adopted by schools include the JASON Project and Cogito, which provide students the opportunity to learn about budding young scientists their own age and more experienced scientists, cutting-edge research, and how the researchers managed to get where they are.

Mentors

Mentors and role models can serve as educational partners and possess both the practical knowledge and personal experience that can be “pivotal in breaking down barriers and encouraging students to persevere in their chosen disciplines” (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2002, p. 2). Mentoring can occur in many ways, such as one-on-one or in small groups and through personal meetings, e-mail exchanges, telephone conversations, or other forms of correspondence (Sword & Hill, 2002). In a review of evidence-based practices in mentoring students with disabilities in STEM, Stumbo et al. (2010–2011) identified the following as important in the development of programs: (a) opportunities for interaction, relationship building, and social role development via direct contact or the Internet; (b) flexibility in approach related to individuals’ preferences, styles, and needs; and (c) mentor training. They also noted that in effective programs, mentoring is just one component of an overall program that provides “multiple-exposure opportunities” (p. 50) to STEM, such as campus tours, summer camps, community events, newsletters, and online social networking. If formal mentoring programs are not locally available, there are a number of online mentoring programs, including AccessComputing, AccessSTEM, and DO-IT Pals. Mentors can also be friends or family.

Special programs aimed at exploring career paths and developing skills in STEM for middle and high school students are available at the local, regional, national, and international levels. STEM schools are popping up across the country. They include public magnet schools, charter schools, and private schools. An increasing number of these programs target underrepresented groups. Precollege STEM bridge programs offered at many universities provide secondary students with experiences in math, science, engineering, health care, and technology, as well as an orientation to the college environment. Some programs are for students with and without disabilities, whereas others are specifically for students from various underrepresented groups, including students with disabilities. The National Science Foundation’s Research in Disability Education Program funds Alliance projects that broaden the participation of people with disabilities in STEM. A common activity of many of the Alliance programs is summer, after-school, weekend, and residential programs specifically for students with disabilities.

Postsecondary Connecting Activities

Another planning consideration is helping students connect with supports and services found at institutions of higher education that are either generally available to all students or specific for students with disabilities before they begin their postsecondary education. Examples of these include disability service and mentoring programs, internships, as well as self-advocacy and advocacy groups. All of these activities have been identified as strategies that affect success for students with disabilities in STEM fields (Summers, 2008).

Disability service programs provide resources such as technology labs, proctored exams, accommodation process assistance, tutoring referrals, and priority registration. Internships are extended practical opportunities in which students can gain experience in STEM fields. These experiences have been linked to increasing students’ confidence and self-efficacy as well as changing employers’ attitudes toward hiring persons with disabilities. Entry Points is an example of an internship program designed for students with disabilities in STEM, in which these students are placed at IBM, NASA, Google, and other partner companies and agencies. Students receive guidance from mentors as they develop and prepare for work.

Also, establishing relationships with others, either individually or through organized groups, including faculty mentor and peers, has been associated with persistence in STEM areas (Summers, 2008). Connecting with mentors and participating in mentoring programs at institutes of higher education encourage and support students to progress in their STEM development.