Content Area Learning at the Secondary Level for Students With Learning Disabilities and Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

The majority of secondary students with learning disabilities (LD) and emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) receive their instruction in general education classrooms; however, they continue to fail at a high rate because they do not have the necessary prior knowledge or skills to be successful (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Moreover, many secondary teachers often are not trained to work with students who have LD/EBD and as a result have a difficult time differentiating instruction for these students. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) mandated that students with disabilities have access to the general education curriculum. This mandate brings new challenges for students as they enter into the world of secondary education. Greater demands on time, coupled with more rigorous curriculum and the need to pass high-stakes tests to graduate, may cause high levels of anxiety among many secondary students. In addition to the difficulties associated with having reading and math disabilities, students with LD/EBD struggle to independently comprehend material when typical instructional methods include textbooks and lectures. The depth and breadth of knowledge and skills secondary students with LD/EBD require to be successful in their courses is beyond the scope of what can be covered, even in this entire issue of Intervention in School and Clinic. This special issue of Intervention consists of five articles that address the need to use two general strategies (i.e., graphic organizers and preteaching), explicitly teach study skills, and evaluate typical and alternate texts to address difficulties secondary students with disabilities may have in content area courses (i.e., natural sciences, social sciences, English, and mathematics). The issue concludes with two columns that address coteaching at the secondary level and the use of Web 2.0 technologies in the area of mathematics.

In the first article, by Barton-Arwood and Little, the authors describe how graphic organizers can be used to teach vocabulary, concepts, written language, and mathematical calculations to minimize the barriers often caused by reading difficulties in secondary classrooms. Barton-Arwood and Little provide an overview of the four main types of graphic organizers: (a) hierarchic, (b) cause and effect, (c) compare and contrast, and (d) cyclic or linear sequences. The authors describe the importance of explicitly teaching students to effectively use graphic organizers. They then provide descriptions of how teachers can use graphic organizers to teach concepts before, during, and after lessons. Several examples of graphic organizers are provided throughout the article.

In the second article, Berg and Wehby address preteaching strategies, with a focus on science and social studies courses. The article describes three specific areas of preteaching: (a) vocabulary preteaching, (b) preteaching with advance organizers, and (c) preteaching targeting background knowledge. The authors suggest that vocabulary preteaching, a common activity, requires teachers to focus on words that are central to the meaning of the lesson or those words that may be problematic because of a lack of background knowledge. They emphasize that preteaching vocabulary should be presented through both explicit instruction and cognitive strategy instruction. The authors then describe how advance organizers provide a framework for students, assisting them in organizing the upcoming lesson by providing an overview of the lesson. Advance organizers are presented in the simplest form by providing direct statements of the lesson goals, linking these statements with previously learned content, relevance to new content, or behavioral expectations, and the more complex use of outlines and visual representations. Last, the authors describe using background knowledge as a method of preteaching. This form of preteaching focuses on the following three areas: (a) reviewing previous instruction, without reteaching the content, (b) activating prior knowledge through brainstorming, questioning, and discussions, and (c) building background knowledge through explicit instruction and demonstrations prior to engaging in the new topic. Although the article concentrates on the areas of science and social studies, these strategies can be used in all content areas.

Next, Paulsen and Sayeski describe the importance of explicitly teaching secondary students effective study skills and the barriers to doing so. They note that often students are not taught effective study skills because there is not agreement about when and where these skills should be taught. They argue for explicitly teaching study skills within content area courses at both the middle and high school levels. Study skills are presented within a management domain and a cognitive domain. The management domain focuses on the development of effective organizational skills, study habits, time management skills, and self-management skills. The cognitive domain addresses using abbreviations and symbols, note-taking skills, correctly interpreting visuals, and efficiently using reference materials. Checklists and ready-to-use graphics that may assist students in these areas are provided.

The final two articles focus on the issue of textbook use and modifications in the content areas. Bruhn and Hasselbring break their article into three sections. In the first section the authors discuss the importance of selecting textbooks that are aligned to standards, have up-to-date and accurate information, and are age appropriate. They then provide seven key components needed to complete an instructional analysis to determine the usefulness of the textbook. An instructional analysis determines the level of (a) sense of purpose, (b) building on student ideas, (c) engaging students, (d) developing ideas, (e) promoting student thinking, (f) assessing student progress, and (g) enhancing the learning environment. The second section, implementation, focuses on strategies for teaching students to effectively use their textbooks. The authors provide a scavenger hunt activity that will allow students to understand the layout of their textbooks. They also provide suggestions for preparing students to read their textbooks through probing questions, anchored instruction, and anticipation guides. The final section addresses the use of digital text as a viable option for students with disabilities. Bruhn and Hasselbring discuss the need for accessible textbooks and cite the National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard as a means for students to receive these services. Two other resources, Bookshare and cloud computing, available for students with disabilities are described.

In the final article, Fenty and Barnett support the use of alternate texts (e.g., magazines, newspapers, trade books) to assist students with disabilities. They begin by providing a summary of the literature examining the use of alternate texts. The authors continue by providing recommendations for incorporating alternate texts into content area courses by describing five indicators to consider when planning how to incorporate alternate text: (a) identify roles, (b) identify instructional context, (c) match content with standards, (d) select appropriate text readability, and (e) identify the instructional setting. A specific example of how teachers can match content with standards is provided. The authors then describe how teachers can use alternate texts to increase comprehension through activating prior knowledge by introducing the text, asking open-ended questions, and using anticipation guides. Strategies for monitoring comprehension (e.g., signals, sticky notes, question cards) are described.

Two columns appear in this special series that provide suggestions for coteaching at the secondary level and using Web 2.0 technologies to support the mathematical learning of secondary students. First, in the collaboration column, Dieker and Rodriquez describe the challenges of coteaching at the secondary level and provide suggestions for implementing this increasingly popular method of teaching. They note that many secondary special education teachers lack the appropriate level of content area knowledge to successfully team teach at this level, but they provide other suggestions for collaboratively working in the general education setting. They focus on the five typical coteaching models: (a) one teach–one support, (b) station teaching, (c) parallel teaching, (d) alternative teaching, and (e) team teaching. They then discuss the model of facilitative support, which is structured to provide ongoing support to general educators through coplanning, coteaching, or coassessing. In this model, special educators typically serve more in a consultant role. They continue by emphasizing the benefit of strong student engagement when coteaching is effectively implemented. Finally, the authors provide specific examples for implementing each coteaching model in science and mathematics courses.

In the technology trends column, Brown provides suggestions for using Web 2.0 technologies in general education secondary mathematics courses. She emphasizes the use of technology (e.g., calculators, iPods) to assist students in developing their problem-solving skills as well as allowing teachers to interact with students more, keeping them engaged in lessons. Brown provides several examples of how technology can be incorporated into mathematics courses, including the use of Smart Boards, digital photography, weblogs, electronic journals, and spreadsheets. She also provides several websites that may be helpful.

As stated previously, the needs of secondary students with LD/EBD are great. This special series provides the readers with information that will assist secondary special educators as they work with their students in the content area classes. The methods described, if explicitly and effectively taught, should allow these students to have the knowledge and skills needed to comprehend content presented through textbooks and lectures.