Developing Handheld Video Intervention for Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Abstract

Video-based intervention (VBI) has strong evidence supporting efficiency in teaching social, communication, functional, behavior, play, and self-help skills and emerging evidence for teaching academic skills to students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). VBI allows opportunities to electronically provide personalized, consistent, and prerecorded instruction. Handheld devices, such as smartphones and tablets, make VBI portable for students. This article supports teachers who wish to implement VBI with their students with ASD by (a) describing types of VBI, such as video prompting, video modeling, video self-modeling, and point-of-view video modeling; (b) providing teachers with a 10-step guide to create, implement, and assess the success of the VBI; and (c) sharing a case-based example illustrating the versatility of VBI.

Keywords

integration of social and academic skills development integration of technology intervention(s) for challenging behaviors assistive technology transition to postsecondary settings

Research documenting effectiveness of technology interventions for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) spans several decades (e.g., Colby, 1973; Panyan, 1984; Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos, 2009). Currently, the widespread use of technology in everyday lives, such as smartphones, tablets, and personal computers, allows for greater ease to access and implement technology-based interventions for students. One such intervention that can be implemented with basic, everyday, handheld technology is a video-based intervention (VBI). There is strong evidence supporting VBI efficiency for teaching social, communication, functional, behavior, play, and self-help skills (Acar & Diken, 2012; Mason, Ganz, Parker, Burke, & Camargo, 2012) and emerging evidence for language arts (Pennington, 2010; Spencer, Evmenova, Boon, & Hayes-Harris, 2014) and mathematics (Burton, Anderson, Prater, & Dyches, 2013; Yakubova, Hughes, & Hornberger, 2015).

Robust documentation of effectiveness, coupled with widespread use of technology and relative ease to create, makes VBI a favorable intervention for students with ASD. VBI allows opportunities to provide personalized and consistent instruction that can be viewed across settings, including classrooms, community, and vocational and field trip locations. Teachers have reported that VBI is practical, effective, and efficient (Johnson, Blood, Freeman, & Simmons, 2013; Yakubova et al., 2015) but requires purposeful planning to promote success. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to (a) describe various types of VBI; (b) provide elements for teachers to consider when creating, implementing, and assessing the effectiveness of VBI; and (c) share a case-based example illustrating the versatility of VBI.

Types of Video Intervention

There are several types of VBI, such as video prompting, video modeling, video self-modeling, and point-of-view video modeling. While there are characteristics that are unique to each type of VBI, several characteristics are common across types. VBIs provide personalized and pre-recorded instruction on a targeted skill. The video clips generally include both visual and auditory components. A student watches the skill being correctly performed and listens to an explicit description of how to perform the skill. The student is then able to imitate the behavior and follow the steps necessary to complete the skill. The video should be viewed as many times as necessary until the student has mastered the skill. Since the student watches the same video multiple times during the intervention, the instruction is systematic, consistent, and predictable. Across all types of VBI, the student may need to be explicitly taught how to operate the device and when to re-view a step or video clip.

Video Prompting

Video prompting refers to a video of a multistep skill in which each step is recorded and accompanied by a narrated step-by-step explanation. The student is instructed to watch the video clip of one step and complete that task prior to watching the clip of the next step. The student continues to watch each subsequent step and completes that step prior to proceeding to the next video portion. This pattern continues until the desired skill is completed. Video prompting can be used for multistep skills with either short or long durations. For example, video prompting has successfully been used to teach functional and vocational skills, such as food preparation skills (Johnson et al., 2013) and clerical skills (Bennett, Gutierrez, & Honsberger, 2013).

Advantages and considerations

One advantage of video prompting is that it allows the student to complete the skill in steps. This alleviates the challenges the student might experience with memorizing all steps of a task. When completing a complex skill, the student can play, pause, and replay each step of the skill as personally necessary, without the need for an adult to prompt each step. Because the complex skill is broken into smaller steps, students have the flexibility to review again only the steps they need help to complete. This is helpful when students do not possess the skills to rewind the entire video clip and find a segment of the video they need to watch again. Additionally, video prompting may be beneficial in situations, such as at work, when the student must learn to complete multiple steps without prompting from coworkers or supervisors. In order to make sure all steps are included in the video modeling, it is important that the teacher complete a task analysis prior to creating the video. This allows the teacher to purposefully sequence the tasks, focusing on each task in a separate video clip.

Video Modeling

Video modeling is a video recording of an adult or peer model demonstrating the accurate completion of a target skill in one video clip. Teachers can create a script for the models to follow and record the desired skills in the natural context where the student is expected to use them. The video shows the adult or peer model completing the skill accompanied by an explicit verbal explanation. For instance, the student with ASD watches the entire video-modeling clip depicting the skill and then performs the skill modeled in the video clip. Unlike video prompting, video modeling does not require the student to pause the video clip at each step of the task and complete that step. Video modeling has been used to increase social communication skills, including play (MacDonald, Clark, Garrigan, & Vangala, 2005; Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2003), address functional living skills (Gardner & Wolfe, 2013), and teach vocational skills (Allen, Wallace, Renes, Bowen, & Burke, 2010).

Advantages and considerations

By using adults or peers as models, the same video can be used for multiple students, reducing the need to make separate video clips for each student. Additionally, having the model practice with the script prior to filming can minimize the time spent recording and editing the video clip. Video modeling may be a good option for skills taught in a natural setting or skills that are more intertwined and do not consist of distinct or separate steps. This may be appropriate for students who demonstrate more sustained attention and memory skills. For example, teaching students to ride public transportation, order a meal at a restaurant, or play on the playground may be better suited for video modeling than video prompting. The student can watch the entire video before going to the bus stop, restaurant, or recess. Similar to video prompting, the teacher needs to determine the steps of the task prior to video recording. However, unlike video prompting, the steps may be more fluid and do not require the student to stop the video after each step. It is prudent to obtain guardian permission for peer models to appear in the video.

Video Self-Modeling

Video self-modeling is comparable to video modeling, with the greatest difference being that the individual modeling the skill in the video is actually the student for whom the video intervention is intended. The teacher may elect to provide the student with a script or task analysis before recording the desired skill, or the teacher may record authentic occurrences of the skill with or without prompting the student at each step. The recorded video self-modeling clips will need to be edited to create one complete video of the targeted skill. Video self-modeling has been effectively used to increase unprompted correct responses during science class (Hart & Whalon, 2012); improve writing skills (Delano, 2007); and improve social, behavioral, communication, and functional skills (Bellinni & Akullian, 2007).

Advantages and considerations

Students can relate to the actions in the video because they watch themselves completing the desired behavior or skill. Seeing personal success on the task may contribute to the student’s self-efficacy (i.e., belief that one can be successful on a task). Pajares (1996) shared that self-efficacy is particularly salient to students’ success. Essentially, a student who believes he or she will be successful at accomplishing a task is more likely to be successful and to work to overcome obstacles encountered during the task (Pajares & Kranzler, 1995). The student is reinforced when he or she sees himself or herself successfully perform the task, which increases the likelihood for future success. When making a video self-modeling clip, the teacher can prompt the student completing the task in a natural setting. The skill may need to be recorded over multiple sessions, or the skill may need to be recorded as separate steps and then edited to create one video clip that correctly demonstrates the desired skill. While video self-modeling is effective, it is important for the teacher to consider the time required to edit and develop the video clip for each student. Video self-modeling clips can be used only with the student who serves as the model.

Point-of-View Video Modeling

A unique feature of point-of-view video modeling is that it demonstrates the skill from the perspective of the model rather than from the perspective of an outside person watching the model demonstrate the skill. The video recording will show only the targeted skill taught with step-by-step explanation and the hands of the model completing the skill. This makes this type of video modeling appropriate for a task that does not require the model to be in full view. When video-recording the task, the camera may be positioned from over the shoulder of the model or in front of the model, near chest level, recording the actions of the model’s hands completing the task. This type of VBI has been used to teach numerous skills, such as functional skills (Norman, Collins, & Schuster, 2001), subtracting fractions (Yakubova et al., 2015), and play skills (Hine & Wolery, 2006).

Advantages and considerations

The point-of-view video clip allows the viewer to watch the skill from the first-person perspective, reducing extra stimuli and focusing the learner’s attention on the skill. Additionally, only one person is needed to create this type of VBI, as the teacher can both record the video and act as the model. The video should be recorded near eye level. Accessories, such as a tripod or stand, may be needed to position the camera to best record the video from the vantage point of the individual creating the video.

Steps to Create, Implement, and Assess Video-based Modeling

Teachers have shared that VBI is practical and relatively easy to implement. First, the teacher will need to consider various elements that support the success of the intervention prior to, during, and after the development of the intervention. The following steps address how to systematically create, implement, and assess a VBI.

Developing the Intervention

Step 1: Identify the target skill

The teacher should begin by targeting a specific skill or behavior that would have the most impact for the student according to the student’s strengths and needs. The skill may be linked to the student’s Individualized Educational Program (IEP) or identified by the student’s teachers or supervisors as an area of need. If it is not already in the IEP, the teacher can create a measurable objective for the target skill that can be assessed during data collection.

Step 2: Select the type of VBI

The types of VBI described in this article have strong evidence of both effectiveness and versatility for teaching different skills. Although several or all of the VBIs may be appropriate to teach the targeted skill, the teacher will need to decide which type of VBI best fits each situation and student. The strengths of and considerations for each VBI shared in this article can aid the decision-making process.

Step 3: Identify student’s familiarity with technology

Prior to implementing VBI, the teacher should assess the student’s familiarity with the technology to be used. If the student is not familiar with the use of a particular technology device, the teacher needs to explicitly teach the student how to use the portable electronic device, including how to turn it on and where to find the video clip. Some students may prefer to use the touch screen on handheld devices, while others may prefer to use a stylus, keyboard, or mouse that connects to the device (e.g., via Bluetooth). Teachers can support the student by providing a checklist of steps for using the technology and removing the supports as the student masters the skills.

Step 4: Determine the mode of delivery

Student familiarity with and availability of handheld devices, such as Kindles, iPads, iPods, smartphones, and tablets, may contribute to deciding which device to use for the intervention. Additionally, handheld devices should either include all of the hardware (e.g., video recorder, microphone) necessary to create and implement the VBI or allow teachers to download applications (e.g., iMovie, ReelDirector, Magisto, Viddy) based on personal preferences. Some additional accessories, such as a stand or additional recording devices, may aid ease of intervention. Some students may prefer to use noise-reducing headphones while watching the video to reduce external distractions.

Equally important is determining how the video will be stored and accessed. Videos can be created and stored on the device’s hard drive and viewed on the device at any time. By storing the video on the hard drive, one does not need access to the Internet to view the video; however, only the videos stored on the specific devices can be viewed. Depending on the size of the video, it can use a lot of memory on a device. Alternatively, the video can be stored online (e.g., via private or public YouTube video; iCloud, Viddy). Storing the video online allows the same video to be viewed from different devices or viewed concurrently. This also allows the student to watch the video from home or school without having to transport a device; yet, it requires the student to have access to multiple forms of electronic devices and requires Internet or 3G/4G access. It is important to consider the permanency of materials placed online and be aware of privacy features of the outlet before uploading videos or storing information online. Students may need instruction on Internet safety. Resources, such as the Internet Safety Tips for Children and Teens provided by the New York Public Library (n.d.), are available to help teachers and parents teach about Internet safety (www.nypl.org/help/about-nypl/legal-notices/internet-safety-tips).

Step 5: Create video

Prior to recording the video, it is important for the teacher to have a script of what will be said during the instruction. Ensuring the VBI instruction is of high quality is important. This script should systematically and explicitly teach the student how to perform the steps of the skill. To ensure that the script includes the appropriate amount of detail for the learner, it is recommended that the teacher conduct a task analysis of the skill. Conducting a task analysis allows the teacher to identify the small, teachable steps necessary to create a comprehensive instructional script tailored to the student’s current level of performance and instructional needs. The teacher will need to determine whether the video will show a close-up view or a more distant view of the skill when considering how to display the skill in the video. Brief videos that explicitly demonstrate the target skill may keep the student’s attention and have stronger impact on student outcomes than videos with long durations. Video prompting may be a good fit for more complex skills that are naturally longer.

During Implementation of the Intervention

Step 6: Collect baseline data

It is important for the teacher to collect information about student performance prior to, during, and after the intervention. The idea of collecting data can be daunting, but it does not have to be time-consuming or overly complex. Traditionally, three samples of student performance on the desired skill are collected for baseline data to determine a general understanding of the student’s performance. The type of data collection should match the skill or behavior targeted (Kennedy, 2005). For example, recording frequency data (i.e., the number of times something occurs) may match behaviors that are brief and have a distinct starting and stopping point, such as calling out. Some behaviors may be better suited to record the duration, intensity, or latency, like time engaged with peers. Academic skills may naturally lend themselves to collecting a permanent product, such as brief paper–pencil assessment. Documenting skill completion via task analysis may be appropriate for skills that require the student to perform multiple steps.

Step 7: A student-operated intervention

The student operates his or her own handheld device. This central component shifts the role of the teacher from an instructor of a lesson in real time to a facilitator of individualized learning (Yakubova & Taber-Doughty, 2013). After training the student on navigating through the electronic device, the teacher can supervise the student as he or she accesses and watches the video clips. Then, the teacher can provide targeted feedback and guidance until the student is able to watch the video clip without assistance.

Once the video has been created, it is time for the teacher to implement the intervention. The teacher should explain the purpose and expectations, including what to do if the student encounters a problem or how to self-monitor and review a video. For example, the teacher may use a think-aloud to demonstrate when it is appropriate to watch the video. Explicit instruction paired with the think-aloud demonstrates metacognitive and self-regulating strategies and encourages the student to use the same strategy when he or she encounters a problem. The teacher can observe the student the first few times he or she operates the device and watches the video to ensure the student does not have any technical difficulty or questions regarding the intervention.

After the student watches the video, the teacher will have the student work on the target skill. VBIs allow students to progress at their own rate. A student may need to watch the video only once each day during the intervention period, while another student may need to watch it multiple times before correctly performing the task. As the intervention continues, a student who has mastered the task can advance to another skill, and a student who still needs more instruction on the skill can continue to watch the VBI clips. Alternatively, the teacher can review the video content with all students as a whole group by engaging them in the discussion of the video content or having students complete a practice skill while the teacher provides corrective feedback and reinforcement.

Step 8: Collect data to assess effectiveness

As with any intervention, it is important to document student performance to determine if the student is benefiting from the intervention. The important thing is that information (i.e., data) is systematically documented and used as evidence to determine whether the intervention is effective. Each day that the students view the VBI clip, the teacher documents more information about student performance and if the intervention is working. The goal of VBI is to promote mastery and maintenance of a skill, so the teacher should not remove the intervention too soon or the student may not maintain newly acquired skills.

In addition to collecting data on the effects of the intervention on student performance, it is important to know the student’s perspectives on the user-friendliness, importance, and practicality of the intervention. Prior to implementing the intervention, the teacher can ask the student’s opinion on what his or her needs are in improving a certain skill, what kind of challenges and assistance the student might need to master the skill, and the student’s thoughts on how to use a certain intervention to improve a particular skill. Similarly, upon implementing the intervention, the teacher can ask the student’s opinion on his or her likes and dislikes about the intervention and its practicality, user-friendliness, and benefits. This will help the teacher to design, modify, and adapt intervention strategies based on the student’s needs.

Step 9: Promote independence

The ultimate goal of any intervention is to promote skill mastery. Mastery suggests that students are able to perform the skill accurately, independently, and across situations. The student may initially need additional supports during the intervention, such as reviewing the video, using an accompanying checklist, or receiving teacher prompting, to be successful at performing the skill. Over time, the student should rely less and less on these scaffolded supports. As this occurs, the teacher should purposefully remove the supports and encourage student independence. This transition may take place over several sessions and should not be forced. If several scaffolding supports are in place, the teacher should remove one at a time, allowing the student to demonstrate mastery before the next scaffold is removed.

After the Intervention

Step 10: Maintenance and generalization

Assess for maintenance of the learned skill after the completion of the intervention or generalization of the skill in a different location or context. Teachers can choose the time interval for assessing for maintenance: the next day or session immediately after removing the intervention or 1, 2, 4, or 6 weeks after the completion of the intervention. Different time intervals for follow-up assessment provide evidence on the extent to which the student maintained skills using the intervention. Teachers can also assess generalization of the skill in an untrained setting or context. Immediately upon conclusion of the intervention phase, the teacher can assign the target task for the student to complete in an untrained setting and collect data on the extent to which the student accurately completes the task. This helps teachers (a) get the information on whether the student with ASD is generalizing the skill he or she learned from a trained setting to an untrained setting and (b) plan further instruction accordingly.

Additional Considerations

The additional considerations may be included at various stages of the intervention. While optional, these considerations may enhance efforts to create and implement the intervention or provide additional resources for use.

Reach out to local universities

Professors at local universities may be able and willing to help with planning, implementing, and collecting data on the intervention. Instructors in higher education may be able to engage their college students in an authentic learning experience or service-learning project to help create instructional videos on specific skills for students in the Pre-K–12 classrooms. Professors’ research interests and contact information are often available on university websites. Be aware that school districts may require additional permission to partner with university faculty who will collect data for research purposes.

Seek additional funding

The cost of technology can add up, especially with limited school budgets and resources. Fortunately, there are resources available for teachers who have projects in need of funding. Websites such as Donors Choose (www.DonorsChoose.org) or GoFundMe (www.gofundme.com) allow teachers to propose a project that needs monetary support and allow individuals to donate to the projects of their choice. Additionally, organizations such as Fund for Teachers (www.fundforteachers.org/) and National Foundation for Autism Research (www.nfar.org/) provide grant opportunities for teachers to fund their projects. Specific terms of agreement and application deadlines are available at the websites.

Case-Based Example: Mrs. Smith

Mrs. Smith was an elementary special education teacher in a learning support room. Four of her students had classifications of ASD. While they shared basic characteristics common to ASD, each had varying and specific needs, both behavioral and academic, that Mrs. Smith needed to address. Mrs. Smith was committed to providing her students with the individualized instruction that they needed, but she was concerned that she did not have enough time during each day to give students the personalized attention that they needed. At a conference, Mrs. Smith heard about video instruction as an effective instructional strategy for students with ASD. She thought this might be a good intervention for her students (see Note 1).

Step 1: Identify the target skill

Mrs. Smith determined that she wanted to use VBI to create an academic intervention for her students. Juliana and Jamal were both second graders who struggle with mathematics but received instruction on grade-level standards. One of the second-grade standards that was challenging to both students was using addition to determine the total number of objects in an array (Common Core State Standards, 2010). By targeting the same skill for both students, Mrs. Smith was able to create one video for both. Mrs. Smith’s measurable objective for Juliana and Jamal was as follows: Given five problems that require students to add to determine the total number of objects in an array, each student will solve the problems with 100% proficiency, with no adult prompting.

Step 2: Select the type of VBI

Mrs. Smith selected point-of-view video modeling to model the desired skills because the video would focus on solving the math problems and minimize external distractions. Additionally, she could use the same video with multiple students, and the video would focus on the math.

Step 3: Identify familiarity with technology

While the students were familiar with technology, Mrs. Smith was concerned that they might need prompting or help operating a handheld device. She wanted to be nearby when they watched the clips to help them troubleshoot through any technical problems. She also created a checklist on how to find and open the video clip.

Step 4: Determine mode of delivery

Mrs. Smith considered taking her class to the computer lab for the intervention but decided that it was easier to have the students stay in her room for the intervention and use portable devices. She prepared a table where she sat with the students as they each worked separately. Each student watched the video using an iPad with noise-reducing headphones. She supervised the intervention and assisted only when they needed prompting to stay on task or follow the checklist.

Step 5: Create video

She received permission from parents and administrators and was able to get the district’s high school instructional technology class to create the VBI clips. Mrs. Smith created a script that explicitly taught the skill and incorporated think-alouds in the lesson. The high school students then filmed the VBI clips using her classroom iPads. The VBI clips were stored online and downloaded to each iPad for students to watch.

Step 6: Collect baseline data

Mrs. Smith used a worksheet to collect data for the intervention. She had several worksheets of the same difficulty level that required students to add to determine the number of objects in an array. She gave Juliana and Jamal one worksheet a day for 3 days to collect baseline data.

Step 7: Implement the intervention

Mrs. Smith explicitly taught Juliana and Jamal how to use the iPad and open the VBI clips. At first, Juliana needed the checklist to follow the steps, but she learned to access the videos without assistance.

Step 8: Collect data

Each day, Juliana and Jamal watched the VBI clip and completed a worksheet with five addition array problems. Mrs. Smith marked how many problems were correct and graphed the results. She continued the intervention until they were consistently performing all of the problems correctly.

Step 9: Promote independence

Because Mrs. Smith supervised Juliana and Jamal during the intervention, she documented if they needed any prompting to stay on task, review the video again, or solve the problems. She noted if she gave them a verbal, visual, or physical prompt. She noticed that they needed less and less prompting as the intervention progressed.

Step 10: Assess for maintenance and generalization

Six weeks after the intervention, Mrs. Smith gave Juliana and Jamal the same assessment that they completed during baseline data collection. She documented that they maintained the skills and reported this at their IEP meetings.

Concluding Thoughts

VBI is a versatile strategy with substantial evidence on its use for teaching social-communication, behavioral, functional, and employment skills, as well as a growing body of evidence on teaching academic skills to students with ASD. Implemented via handheld, portable electronic devices, VBI allows for students to receive personalized instruction rather than one standard instruction provided to a group of students. Particularly, given the diversity of the characteristics of students with ASD, VBI and technology-based interventions provide one way of helping students learn to their potential. Teachers who wish to engage the students with VBI are encouraged to follow the 10 steps outlined in this article. Documenting the impact of an intervention allows teachers to focus on positive student outcomes and strengthen evidence to support the intervention.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

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