Mindset of Paraprofessionals Serving Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Abstract

As schools across the United States move toward more inclusive models and as caseloads for special education teachers increase, special education paraprofessionals are being hired to fill service delivery gaps. Most often, paraprofessionals are asked to provide social and behavioral support to students with disabilities, and much of their time is spent in direct support of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Special education teachers have reported that students with emotional and behavioral disorders are some of the hardest to serve, and those working in this field have the highest rate of burnout. Although there has been increased recognition of the importance of mental health and wellbeing for special education teachers, little attention has been paid to paraprofessionals’ needs. Based on recommendations for special education teachers in the extant literature, 12 survival mindsets to be adopted by paraprofessionals are proposed that may prevent burnout by promoting greater resiliency, emotional wellbeing, and self-awareness.

Keywords

burnout emotional and behavioral disorders mental health mindset paraprofessionals resiliency

As schools across the United States move toward inclusive models and as caseloads for special education teachers increase, special education paraprofessionals are being hired to fill service delivery gaps and perform numerous roles in schools, including management of students’ behaviors (Brock & Carter, 2013). In fact, reports show that paraprofessionals outnumber the total number of full-time special education teachers in schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2012). A recent study of 32 schools found that 76% of special education services were delivered by paraprofessionals (Giangreco, Suter, & Hurley, 2013). It is unfortunate that the call to action for paraprofessionals has not been matched by adequate training for these support staff members, which has left many paraprofessionals feeling overworked and underappreciated (Fisher & Pleasants, 2012).

Nearly 75% of paraprofessionals provide direct support to students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD; Carter, O’Rourke, Sisco, & Pelsue, 2009). By the nature of their disability, students with EBD present some of the most significant social, emotional, and behavioral challenges for paraprofessionals. In recognition of the importance of paraprofessionals to the success of students with EBD, a recent request for applications for special education research grants from the Institute of Education Sciences explicitly called for research leading to a better understanding of paraprofessionals’ role in delivering behavioral support to students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). It may also be time to give more attention to the psychosocial components required to effectively serve students with EBD. Too often, paraprofessionals are the forgotten people in special education and their stressors go unnoticed (Frith & Mims, 1985; Shyman, 2010).

Burnout Among Paraprofessionals

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2016), 56% of students with EBD spend at least 20% of their time outside of the general education classroom. Working conditions for special education service providers in self-contained settings for students with EBD have been described as inadequate and stress-inducing (Bettini, Cumming, Merrill, Brunsting, & Liaupsin, 2016). Students with EBD are some of the hardest to serve and teachers working with students with EBD have the highest rate of burnout (Brunsting, Sreckovic, & Lane, 2014). One of the primary reasons given by special education teachers of students with EBD for leaving the profession is feelings of stress, burnout, and dissatisfaction with their job (Albrecht, Johns, Mounsteven, & Olorunda, 2009). Although there has been an increased recognition of the importance of mental health and wellbeing for special education teachers (Ansley, Houchins, & Varjas, 2016), little attention has been paid to the needs of paraprofessionals.

Although teaching is a highly stressful profession, burnout is more than just stress and can be conceptualized as employees feeling fatigued and ineffective (i.e., emotionally exhausted), experiencing depersonalization (e.g., becoming apathetic to the job), and lacking a sense of personal accomplishment (Brouwers & Tomic, 2016). Shyman found that more than 70% of the participants in a 2010 study reported high levels of emotional exhaustion. Paraprofessionals need help. “This job is really, really hard. I mean I go home and I’m exhausted at the end of every day” (Giangreco, Broer, & Edelman, 2002, p. 57). “The responsibility is great with no recognition really except from maybe your teachers” (Tillery, Werts, Roark, & Harris, 2003, p. 123).

Researchers have found that students are more likely to struggle emotionally, behaviorally, and socially, and are less likely to meet goals in their Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), when working with individuals who are experiencing burnout (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ruble & McGrew, 2013). Reducing burnout is also important to paraprofessionals’ personal health because individuals experiencing burnout are at greater risk for chronic fatigue, depression, insomnia, and substance abuse problems (Williams & Dikes, 2015). In addition, burnout has been associated with teachers’ struggles to adhere to behavioral intervention protocols (Wehby, Maggin, Moore Partin, & Robertson, 2012). Therefore, even the most carefully designed intervention is unlikely to succeed if proper attention has not been given to the feelings of burnout experienced by the interventionist. For students with EBD, this is often a paraprofessional.

Mindset Matters

Weber, Anderson, and Otey (1991) cast a spotlight on the importance of a teacher’s mindset (e.g., hope, self-efficacy, joy) in handling the demands of working alongside students with EBD. It is plausible that the 12 survival mindsets they proposed could be beneficial to current paraprofessionals working with students with EBD. Therefore, we summarized these 12 mindsets and shared them with a special education paraprofessional (Lucille [pseudonym]) working in a middle school self-contained classroom for students with EBD to get her opinion on how these ideas were relevant to her. The 12 mindsets follow, along with classroom application and Lucille’s interpretation (see Note 1).

Always believe there is an answer to a problem. Application: Do not give up on students and seek help from colleagues when needed. Interpretation: Everyone told me that Matt couldn’t read and that he hated reading. I gave him some comics and he just devoured them. Turns out, he just wanted something interesting to read.

Look for the positive in negative situations. Application: Acknowledge negative situations but do not obsess on them. Remain optimistic. Interpretation: I felt bad that Kayla failed her math test for the fourth time, but she told me not to worry because, as she said, “at least I tried hard this time.” Kayla actually taught me, her teacher, a lot.

Be sensitive to the functions of the students’ behaviors. Application: Try to see things from the students’ point of view to help in understanding their needs. Interpretation: Madison used to scream when she wanted the iPad because at home someone gave her a tablet to keep her quiet. Once we figured that out, she learned to ask for things without screaming.

Celebrate small successes. Application: Realize and believe that any amount of progress, no matter how small, is still progress. Interpretation: Over the course of the year, Storm, who was in sixth grade, moved from a third- to a fourth-grade reading level. Progress! He didn’t get on grade level, but he DID improve. And he was proud.

Believe that conflicts provide opportunities for growth. Application: Understand that conflicts with a student might mean you are approaching root causes of behavior problems. Interpretation: My supervising teacher and I disagreed on how to handle a student’s swearing, so we met after school to talk it out. That talk was uncomfortable but it made our relationship a lot stronger.

Do not take students’ behaviors personally. Application: If students lash out at you or do not return your affection, do not assume they dislike you. Interpretation: Jacob tried to jab me in the leg with his pencil when we were doing his math homework, and he said, “I hope you die!” The next day, everything was fine; he was calm. I didn’t hold a grudge.

Explore all possible pathways to help the student. Application: Step outside your comfort zone and try new things to help a student, or yourself. Interpretation: To me, this just means that I shouldn’t give up. If a strategy doesn’t work today, it might work tomorrow or with another student. You just never know; you have to keep trying different things.

Mistakes happen. Application: Accept that things will not always go as planned. Do not be afraid of trying something and failing. Interpretation: I messed up so many times trying to teach Isaiah about the idea of other people’s personal space. It took forever, but we kept working and we eventually got there. If I had quit, gosh, who knows?

Down time is deadly. Application: Plan for engaging academic activities as a proactive way to prevent behavior problems. Interpretation: My supervising teacher told me about opportunities to respond and how I need to be sure I am always giving our students a chance to speak up and give correct answers. They can’t have too much free time or they get into trouble.

Overcome fear of emotional or physical pain from students. Application: Stop and ask for help if you find yourself being driven by fear of personal failure or pain. Interpretation: My guard is always up for physical stuff; it just has to be in my room. Emotionally, it’s hard not to take the kids’ struggles as my own personal failures. It’s so sad sometimes to see what they are up against and you feel powerless. But, they need me, even if they don’t always show it.

Embrace the bizarre and comical side of life. Application: Maintain a good sense of humor to help diffuse negative situations and connect with students. Interpretation: Well, we use GoNoodle in our classroom, and every now and then, maybe once or twice per month, we just break out into dance moves. I look ridiculous but the kids love it and it seems to energize them for the rest of the day. It’s odd, but even the quieter kids come out of their shell.

Challenge and change your own irrational thoughts. Application: Do not let your mind become obsessed with negativity or doomsday scenarios. Interpretation: I have to catch myself sometimes, because I’ll think, “This is such a bad day I can’t take it! Can it get any worse?” But then I remember two things. First, the day will end soon enough and I get to go home. And second, these kids have bad days a lot more than I do.

Generally speaking, the mindsets and Lucille’s comments target three constructs—(a) resiliency, (b) emotional wellbeing, and (c) self-awareness—that could help prevent burnout for paraprofessionals working with students with EBD. A discussion of each of these constructs and the corresponding mindsets, as well as recommendations for paraprofessionals to improve in each area, is included in the next sections.

Resiliency (Mindsets 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9)

Resiliency refers to one’s ability to adjust to adverse circumstances and overcome challenges (Bobek, 2002). Based on recommendations for teachers working in high-needs areas (Castro, Kelly, & Shih, 2010), paraprofessionals can foster their resiliency and promote their longevity in the field by (a) asking for help when needed, (b) working on their problem-solving skills, and (c) attending to their emotional wellbeing (discussed in the next section). When seeking help from others, paraprofessionals should look to positive peer mentors or colleagues and avoid those who would seek to complain and talk negatively about students (Cavin, 1998). For problem-solving, paraprofessionals should not be afraid to make mistakes when trying a new approach with a student (i.e., trial and error). Furthermore, practitioner papers, such as the current article, are designed to help teachers and paraprofessionals problem solve in schools.

Two additional strategies for fostering resilience are related to managing students’ behavior (Barbetta, Norona, & Bicard, 2005). First, if a specific behavior management approach is not working with a student, paraprofessionals should consider trying something new instead of simply increasing the intensity of the approach. For example, instead of delivering more severe consequences for a behavior violation, which is a punitive approach, paraprofessionals can consider increasing the frequency with which they offer behavior-specific praise to students when they engage in appropriate behaviors (Sutherland, Wehby, & Copeland, 2000). In other words, “catch them being good” (Shelton & Meyer, 1977, p. 110). A 4:1 ratio of praise-to-consequence statements is generally desirable (Alberto & Troutman, 2013). Second, when students misbehave, paraprofessionals should take the behavior professionally, not personally (Barbetta et al., 2005). By viewing behavior management as part of the job, no different from academic instruction, paraprofessionals can remain objective and continue their work in the face of obstacles. Teachers who are better able to control their emotions while working alongside students with challenging behaviors are more likely to maintain control and feel empowered to do their job (Maag, 2008).

Emotional wellbeing (Mindsets 2, 10, and 12)

Individuals with greater emotional competence tend to feel better about their abilities to instruct and engage with students (Woolfolk Hoy & Spero, 2005) and rate lower on feelings of professional burnout (Brouwers & Tomic, 2016). One of the biggest detriments to a person’s emotional wellbeing is high levels of stress. It is unfortunate that a lot of the stress felt by school practitioners is self-imposed because of irrational thinking. Maag (2008) proposed the term awfulizing when discussing teachers who view work situations as much worse than they actually are in reality. To avoid awfulizing thoughts, Maag suggested practitioners use the bodily damage scale to assess any stressful situation. The 100-point scale has intervals of 10, including 0 (nothing), 10 (mosquito bite), 50 (broken finger), 90 (quadriplegic), and 100 (death). For example, after enduring a difficult confrontation with a student, a paraprofessional could ask oneself how much pain, on a scale of 100, she or he would be willing to endure to avoid the situation. With most paraprofessionals not wanting to go beyond a mosquito bite (i.e., getting 10% upset), they can tell themselves to remain calm because they have 90% of their rational thinking faculties available to handle the situation (Maag, 2008).

In recommendations for how teachers of students with EBD can prevent themselves from becoming distraught, Cavin (1998) suggested avoiding the teacher’s lounge, which is often a place where teachers come to complain about students, other colleagues, or the school or district as a whole. Obsessing on the negative parts of the job is also likely to disrupt personal relationships with people outside of the school—people who should be a source of joy and personal fulfillment (Cancio & Conderman, 2008). Instead, paraprofessionals may wish to connect with one or two positive colleagues and spend much of their time with them (Cavin, 1998). Finally, emotional health and physical health are not mutually exclusive. Among the many ways to reduce stress and burnout, a positive frame of mind can be developed by maintaining a healthy diet, exercising regularly (e.g., yoga, jogging), using mindfulness training (e.g., engaging in deliberate attention to an activity, such as eating or walking), or working to set boundaries between work and personal life (Ansley et al., 2016; Cancio & Conderman, 2008).

Self-awareness (Mindsets 5, 6, and 11)

Paraprofessionals must be willing to self-assess realistically which behaviors are helpful and which are harmful (Richardson & Shupe, 2003). For example, when student behavior gets out of hand and things get chaotic, paraprofessionals must do their best to remain calm because oftentimes the student with EBD cannot (Cavin, 1998). If a paraprofessional were to fly into a rage right along with the students, it would likely exacerbate the situation. In addition to asking colleagues from time to time what they see as the paraprofessional’s greatest strength and greatest weakness (Richardson & Shupe, 2003), paraprofessionals can also ask themselves after a difficult interaction with a student if their response helped the student, or themselves, do better in the future. Paraprofessionals should also be aware of the symptoms of burnout so they can seek help when needed. In addition to completing self-assessments with rating scales (e.g., the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Educator Survey; Maslach, Leiter, & Jackson, 2010), paraprofessionals can watch for the following warning signs of burnout: (a) increased boredom with the job, (b) no longer finding joy in things that were once enjoyable, (c) losing social relationships, and (d) substance abuse (Cancio & Conderman, 2008). Finally, humor can be a great way to alleviate stress and tension, but paraprofessionals should never use humor at the students’ expense. If paraprofessionals use humor as a behavior management tool, they must be sure it is not creating negative feelings among or between the students and themselves (Richardson & Shupe, 2003).

Lucille’s mindset

Lucille was a practicing paraprofessional working in a middle school self-contained classroom for students with EBD. At the time, she was taking classes to earn her special education teaching license and had been working as a paraprofessional for 3 years. Although Lucille had no previous knowledge of the research literature, to some degree she possessed all 12 of the survival mindsets. Interpretations of each of the mindsets were taken from conversations with Lucille. In these discussions, it became evident that many of Lucille’s personality traits and dispositions were instrumental to her success in the classroom.

Support From Special Education Teachers

Although they rarely receive preservice or in-service training in how to do so, special education teachers are generally responsible for supervising paraprofessionals (Brock & Carter, 2016; French, 2001; Trautman, 2004). Special education paraprofessionals are, in effect, personnel who execute social-behavioral therapy and support for students with special needs as set forth by special education teachers. To be effective, paraprofessionals need to have cohesive relationships with their supervising teachers, because these service providers need to work collaboratively, rather than in isolation from one another (Kratz et al., 2015).

The level of cohesion regarding work-related responsibilities between special education teachers and paraprofessionals has significant implications for paraprofessionals’ views of their value and for the success of the students they serve (Ghere & York-Barr, 2007; Tillery et al., 2003). Multiple researchers have noted that among the many ways to develop cohesive special educator–paraprofessional teams is the importance of meeting on a regular basis to review the status of the working relationship and to ensure that the paraprofessional feels at ease in the classroom with students (Haughe & Babkie, 2006; Leblanc, Ricciardi, & Luiselli, 2005). This collaborative partnership should allow opportunities for ongoing discussion and performance feedback from the teacher to the paraprofessional. Hall, Grundon, Pope, and Romero (2010) found that paraprofessionals valued the coaching received from special education teacher supervisors.

Paraprofessionals have expressed the need for (a) acknowledgment for their contributions, (b) training in the tasks they are most often asked to complete, (c) clarification on their role in the school, (d) feeling that they are part of the team, and (e) ongoing input into programs for students with whom they work (Carter et al., 2009; Giangreco & Broer, 2005). Special education teachers and paraprofessionals should have time committed for planning (Steinbacher-Reed & Powers, 2012), and it is during these meetings when special education teachers can consider paraprofessionals’ needs when developing methods of collaboration. When working together as a team, these two service providers can also discuss their emotional states to see if either is beginning to experience burnout. In addition, as paraprofessionals are unlikely to read academic journals, special education teachers can come to these meetings with professional literature, such as the current article, to share and show their interest in supporting the unique needs of the paraprofessional. If the paraprofessional is indeed showing signs of burning out, the special education teacher can discuss the importance of mindset and how it can improve paraprofessionals’ resilience, emotional wellbeing, and self-awareness. The paraprofessional should know that her or his supervising teacher is a trusted colleague who can provide support when dealing with a difficult student or general frustrations with the job.

Conclusion

There is little doubt that the task of educating students with EBD is challenging and wears on one’s mindset. It is unlikely that increased positive outcomes for students with EBD can occur by simply acquiring greater numbers of paraprofessionals without attending to their psychological wellbeing. As they await more training opportunities, paraprofessionals could likely benefit from regular attendance to their frame of mind while serving students with EBD.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

References

Alberto

P. A.

Troutman

A. C.

(2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Albrecht

S. F.

Johns

B. H.

Mounsteven

Olorunda

(2009). Working conditions as risk or resiliency factors for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 46, 1006–1022.

Ansley

B. M.

Houchins

Varjas

(2016). Optimizing special educator wellness and job performance through stress management. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 48, 176–185.

Barbetta

P. M.

Norona

K. L.

Bicard

D. F.

(2005). Classroom behavior management: A dozen common mistakes and what to do instead. Preventing School Failure, 49, 11–19.

Bettini

E. A.

Cumming

M. M.

Merrill

K. L.

Brunsting

N. C.

Liaupsin

C. J.

(2016). Working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional disturbance. Journal of Special Education. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0022466916674195

Bobek

B. L.

(2002). Teacher resiliency: A key to career longevity. The Clearing House, 75, 202–205.

Brock

M. E.

Carter

E. W.

(2013). A systematic review of paraprofessional-delivered instruction to improve outcomes for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 38, 211–221.

Brock

M. E.

Carter

E. W.

(2016). Efficacy of teachers training paraprofessionals to implement peer support arrangements. Exceptional Children, 82, 354–371.

Brouwers

Tomic

(2016). Job-demands, job control, social support, self-efficacy, and burnout of staff of residential children’s homes. Educational Practice and Theory, 38, 89–107.

10.

Brunsting

N. C.

Sreckovic

M. S.

Lane

K. L.

(2014). Special education teacher burnout: A synthesis of research from 1979 to 2013. Education and Treatment of Children, 37, 681–712.

11.

Cancio

E. J.

Conderman

(2008). Promoting longevity: Strategies for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Beyond Behavior, 17, 30–36.

12.

Carter

O’Rourke

Sisco

L. G.

Pelsue

(2009). Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 344–359.

13.

Castro

A. J.

Kelly

Shih

(2010). Resilience strategies for new teachers in high-needs areas. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 622–629.

14.

Cavin

(1998). Maintaining sanity in an insane classroom: How a teacher of students with emotional disturbances can keep from becoming an emotionally disturbed teacher. Education and Treatment of Children, 21, 370–384.

15.

Fisher

Pleasants

S. L.

(2012). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators: Findings from a statewide survey. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 287–297.

16.

French

N. K.

(2001). Supervising paraprofessionals: A survey of teacher practices. Journal of Special Education, 55, 41–53.

17.

Frith

G. H.

Mims

(1985). Burnout among special education paraprofessionals. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 17, 225–227.

18.

Ghere

York-Barr

(2007). Paraprofessional turnover and retention in inclusive programs: Hidden costs and promising practices. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 21–32.

19.

Giangreco

M. F.

Broer

S. M.

(2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 10–26.

20.

Giangreco

M. F.

Broer

S. M.

Edelman

S. W.

(2002). “That was then, this is now!” Paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptionality, 10, 47–64.

21.

Giangreco

M. F.

Suter

J. C.

Hurley

S. M.

(2013). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education, 47, 121–132.

22.

Hall

L. J.

Grundon

G. S.

Pope

Romero

A. B.

(2010). Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments. Behavioral Interventions, 25, 37–51.

23.

Haughe

J. M.

Babkie

A. M.

(2006). Develop collaborative special educator-paraprofessional teams: One para’s view. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 51–53.

24.

Jennings

P. A.

Greenberg

M. T.

(2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79, 491–525.

25.

Kratz

H. E.

Locke

Piotrowski

Outlette

R. R.

Xie

Stahmer

A. C.

Mandell

D. S.

(2015). All together now: Measuring staff cohesion in special education classrooms. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33, 329–338.

26.

Leblanc

M. P.

Ricciardi

J. N.

Luiselli

J. K.

(2005). Improving discrete trial instruction by paraprofessional staff through an abbreviated performance feedback intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 76–82.

27.

Maag

J. W.

(2008). Rational-emotive therapy to help teachers control their emotions and behavior when dealing with disagreeable students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44, 52–57.

28.

Maslach

Leiter

M. P.

Jackson

S. E.

(2010). Maslach burnout inventory. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden.

29.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). The digest of education statistics, 2014 (NCES 2016-006), Table 204.60. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.

30.

Richardson

B. G.

Shupe

M. J.

(2003). The importance of teacher self-awareness in working with students with emotional and behavioral disorders. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 36, 8–13.

31.

Ruble

L. A.

McGrew

J. H.

(2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2748–2763.

32.

Shelton

J. L.

Meyer

E. M.

(1977). Catch them being good: Training parents as behavioral engineers. The School Counselor, 25, 110–115.

33.

Shyman

(2010). Identifying predictors of emotional exhaustion among special education paraeducators: A preliminary investigation. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 828–841.

34.

Steinbacher-Reed

Powers

E. A.

(2012). Coaching without a coach. Educational Leadership, 69, 68–72.

35.

Sutherland

K. S.

Wehby

J. H.

Copeland

S. R.

(2000). Effects of varying rates of behavior-specific praise on the on-task behavior of students with EBD. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 2–8.

36.

Tillery

C. Y.

Werts

M. G.

Roark

Harris

(2003). Perceptions of paraeducators on job retention. Teacher Education and Special Education, 26, 118–127.

37.

Trautman

M. L.

(2004). Preparing and managing paraprofessionals. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 131–138.

38.

U.S. Department of Education. (2012). Paraprofessionals employed (FTE) to provide special education and related services to children ages 6 through 21 under IDEA, Part B, by qualifications and state: Fall 2010. Retrieved from http://www.ideadata.org

39.

U.S. Department of Education. (2016). Request for applications. Special education research grants CFDA number: 84.324A. Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences.

40.

Weber

Anderson

Otey

(1991). Teacher mindsets for surviving in BD classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 26, 288–292.

41.

Wehby

J. H.

Maggin

D. M.

Moore Partin

T. C.

Robertson

(2012). The impact of working alliance, social validity, and teacher burnout on implementation fidelity of the Good Behavior Game. School Mental Health, 4, 22–33.

42.

Williams

Dikes

(2015). The implications of demographic variables as related to burnout among a sample of special education teachers. Education, 135, 337–345.

43.

Woolfolk Hoy

Spero

R. B

. (2005). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A comparison of four measures. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 343–356.