Visual Supports to Promote Science Discourse for Middle and High School Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders

Abstract

Students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are increasingly included in general education and are expected to access core content, including science. Development of science content knowledge, scientific literacy, and scientific thinking are areas emphasized in legislation as well as the National Science Education Standards as critical for all students, particularly as they progress to middle and high school. However, participation in science discourse is often challenging for students with ASD given their difficulties with communication. Moreover, evidence on teaching academic content, such as science, to students with disabilities is limited. In this article, the use of visual supports is described as an evidence-based practice to promote engagement in science discussions among students with high-functioning ASD.

Keywords

science autism disabilities learning strategies academic

Students with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are increasingly educated in inclusive settings (Cihak, Fahrenkrog, Ayres, & Smith, 2010). Many of these students can achieve at a high academic level or have cognitive abilities that qualify them to benefit from the general curriculum (Zager & Shamow, 2005). As such, there is a rising expectation that students with ASD will access and develop the same core curricular content knowledge that their typically developing peers do, which ushers in a related need for evidence-based educational interventions to support students’ successful subject-area learning (Knight, Smith, Spooner, & Browder, 2012).

Scientific thinking involves applying the methods or principles of scientific inquiry to reasoning and problem solving, and involves the skills used in generating, testing, and revising theories, reflecting on the process of knowledge acquisition and change (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Development of scientific content knowledge, literacy, and thinking is emphasized in legislation as well as the National Generation Science Standards (National Research Council [NRC], 2012; No Child Left Behind Act, 2002) as critical for all students. Promoting the skill to think scientifically is critical to a student’s ability to understand science. Regarding students with disabilities, the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) mandates that all students have access to and demonstrate progress in the general curriculum, including content area science.

Despite the prominence placed on teaching science content from federal regulations and movements, there is relatively little evidence on how to teach such academic content to students with disabilities (Jimenez, Lo, & Saunders, 2014). Although science learning is important for all students, there are few studies addressing this content for students with developmental disabilities, such as ASD (Knight et al., 2012). Moreover, researchers have recently suggested that students with high-functioning ASD possess strengths that advantage them in the science classroom such as systemizing, memorizing, and understanding rule-based systems. But these students also struggle with the social interactions that accompany scientific discussions (Wei, Yu, Shattuck, McCracken, & Blackorby, 2013). Therefore, science is one area of general curriculum access that merits attention for students with ASD, with a focus on instructional strategies that attend to the communication challenges students with ASD experience.

Science Discourse and Challenges

Science is essentially a social endeavor, and scientific knowledge advances through collaboration in the context of well-developed norms (NRC, 2012). Argumentation and discourse in science has a different purpose than it does in other contexts, as it is used to promote as much understanding of a problem as possible and to persuade colleagues of the validity of a specific idea; it also involves sharing, processing, and learning about ideas (NRC, 2012). Argumentation based on evidence is essential to the work of scientists to identify the best explanation for a phenomenon (NRC, 2012). In fact, according the Next Generation Science Standards (NRC, 2012) framework, the argumentation and analysis that relate evidence and theory are essential aspects of science; that is, scientists need to be able to examine, review, and assess their own knowledge and ideas and evaluate those of others. Specific argumentation skills include (a) critiquing data quality, (b) theory modeling, (c) formation of new testable questions from those models, and (d) modification of theories and models as evidence suggests is needed (NRC, 2012).

In the middle and high school science classroom, students are increasingly expected to present hypotheses and observations, engage in debate, and build on others’ work and ideas (Lajoie, Lavigne, Guerrera, & Munsie, 2001). Such interactions are complex for students with ASD because precise interpretation involves accurately attending to and comprehending cues such as gaze, proximity, intonation, and volume, and may include multiple communication partners (Cazden, 2001). Because students with ASD have difficulty attending to multiple forms of stimuli, distinguishing relevant from extraneous information, and shifting attentional focus (Tsatsanis, 2005), such classroom interactions are inherently difficult (Tager-Flusberg, Paul, & Lord, 2005). As scientific discourse is socially mediated and constructed, students must learn interaction norms by participating in discourse and by way of explicit instruction (Kelly & Chen, 1999).

Use of Visual Supports

Individuals with ASD require environmental and instructional support that will help them overcome challenges posed by difficulties in their ability to use and understand language (Rao & Gagie, 2006). Many students with ASD have difficulty understanding, recalling, and using verbal communication (Hodgdon, 2000). These students will often process visual support more easily than other modes of communication (Rao & Gagie, 2006). Use of visual supports is a common evidence-based practice that aids students in grasping concepts and ideas such as those in science. Visual supports comprise concrete cues that provide information about an activity, routine, or expectation and/or support skill demonstration (Wong et al., 2014). Incorporating visuals and other concrete supports assists individuals with ASD (Marans, Rubin, & Laurent, 2005). These supports are beneficial to students with ASD because they provide cues to aid students when performing academic tasks (Wong et al., 2014). In addition, visual supports (a) attract and hold students’ attention, (b) enable students to focus on the message and reduce anxiety, (c) make abstract concepts more concrete for the student, and (d) help the student express his or her thoughts (Breitfelder, 2008). Furthermore, visual supports are identified by the National Autism Center (2011) as an effective evidenced-based strategy for individuals with ASD.

A series of three types of visual supports for use in science teaching are described. These supports include checklists, scripts, and graphic organizers teachers of students with ASD can use during science activities, enabling students’ effective communication and argumentation with peers during ongoing scientific discussions in the classroom. The ability to engage in scientific discourse develops conceptual understanding, facilitates a scientific community atmosphere in the classroom, and contributes to the general education of students (Newton, Driver, & Osborne, 1999). Checklists, scripts, and graphic organizers are briefly defined and their use for students with ASD in facilitating science discourse is described.

Checklists are concrete supports such as a written cue or visual that explicitly depicts the interactions or steps needed to complete an activity (Wilkinson, 2008). Teachers use visual cues and written checklists to augment students’ receptive and expressive communication during an activity (Mirenda & Erickson, 2000), and increase independence in a given task (Quill, 1995). Checklists have the potential to increase concentration and attention of students because they are aware of the goal to be achieved and can see which steps need to be performed to accomplish the objective (Busick & Neitzel, 2009). In addition, using a concrete list of steps allows students to track their progress in completing an activity, thus promoting independence.

Scripts are explicit written and/or visual prompts used to facilitate participation in an interaction and are implemented in classroom activities wherein students with ASD would be expected to display language and are effective in cueing communication (Ganz & Flores, 2010). Visual scripts are written scenarios, skits, or examples that students can use to initiate conversations and that indicate how to respond in a social or academic situation (Gray, 1994). Visual scripts are also used to assist children in solving problems and preparing for conversations (Cohen & Sloan, 2007), which are core activities involved in the scientific process.

Graphic organizers are visual supports that present concrete depictions of key ideas. They emphasize essential concepts and facts as well as the relationships between them (Smith-Myles & Adreon, 2001). Graphic organizers help students to generate, organize, and record their ideas, make connections among those ideas, and improve conceptual understanding. Graphic organizers can positively impact learning provided that explicit instruction with teacher modeling and independent practice with feedback are integrated (Hall & Strangman, 2002).

Sample Visual Supports

Scientists attempt to explain various phenomena using arguments based on data and other sources of evidence. Therefore, defending an idea with evidence is an important component of the meaning-making process in science classrooms. The Research/Evidence Gathering Checklist (Figure 1) provides a sample set of steps to prepare a student with ASD for interactions with peers when engaging in scientific discussions, with either a partner or in a small cooperative group. This visual includes target indicators of quality research preparation such as how to relate the data students have collected from their observations to a more formal search for facts and supporting evidence, or determining which sources would provide credible information.

Figure 1.

Research Checklist to be used when gathering information.

As students with ASD prepare to engage in discussion, they can be prompted to use the checklist to gather and record evidence. For instance, if a student were researching global warming, she would enter the words “global warming” in Step 1 of the Research/Evidence Gathering Checklist. In Step 2, the student would generate a list of search terms. Search terms could include “global warming, climate change, atmospheric change, environmental changes.” Then she would consider the information examined, decide what constituted the best evidence, and record it in Step 4. The checklist follows a logical progression to help learners frame their thinking, develop defensible perspectives, and engage in reasoned discussions with peers.

As with any new strategy, when utilizing the checklist for the first time, teachers will need to prime students to familiarize them with correct use. Priming helps prepare students with ASD, who often require help with social initiations, for an upcoming discussion by previewing information or activities in which they may have difficulty. It is an effective tool for improving performance on a variety of tasks. Priming is conducted prior to instruction using the same material that will be used in an upcoming activity. It usually occurs the day before the activity and is performed by anyone who works with the child at home or at school (e.g., teachers, paraprofessionals). Priming consists of concise sessions that take place in a stress-free environment and seeks to familiarize the student with the material as opposed to teaching it (Hart & Whalon, 2008). Teachers can prime students on use of the checklist by working individually with the student with ASD and practicing the checklist step by step. Then the student should be supported as he or she assumes more responsibility for using the checklist independently and be provided with reinforcement for attempts made. For those who require more intensive scaffolding, teachers can collect observation data on these students during group activities, recording specific challenges students with ASD demonstrate. Then teachers can guide instruction on use of the visual supports more formally, noting any errors that are occurring and reteaching steps as needed, gradually decreasing support until the student demonstrates independence. At this point, the checklist can be used by the student to research a topic for discussion independently.

To further support the learner with ASD, a script might initially be provided so the student is able to successfully complete his or her role in the cooperative learning group. An example of a science script that could be provided to a student with ASD is the Group Interactions Script (see Figure 2). This script provides sentence starters, examples of questions students can ask group members to assist in facilitating discussion, and appropriate evaluative comments students can use to commend their peers. The level of detail provided in each script will depend on the amount of support each student requires and can be modified accordingly. Teachers should provide enough support for the students to be successful, and gradually reduce the amount of information provided to help students increase their independence.

Figure 2.

Group Interactions Script to be used after research on a topic is completed.

For students who require more practice and initial support to participate in discussions with peers, role cards may be provided so they understand their task in the group. The student with ASD may receive a role card that also includes a script. For example, if the learner with ASD were tasked with the role of asking questions during a cooperative learning activity, the scripted role card could include an explanation of the role and sample questions the student might pose within the cooperative group (e.g., “What data are important to consider for this topic?” or “What specific evidence can we cite to defend our idea?”)

As described earlier, graphic organizers engage learners with a combination of words and printed diagrams, providing a visual aid to facilitate learning and instruction. To create graphic organizers, select the content to be covered, and then organize the information in diagram form. For example, the Discussion Form (see Figure 3) is an organizer that can be used to prepare students with ASD for scientific discussion. As students with ASD may struggle with initiating and responding during discussions, the Discussion Form is a tool that the student can use initially to organize their ideas. For example, as students continue to explore global warming, they could list evidence related to the increase of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere on the first lines. Then under Subpoint a the students may list regions of the world where carbon monoxide emissions are decreasing. For Subpoint b the students may have found information that led them to the question, “How are scientists currently trying to fix this problem?”

Figure 3.

Discussion Organizer Form.

These ideas can then be brought to a small group or whole class discussion about the topic. Students can refer to this organizer as they respond during discussions and facilitate multiple opportunities for communication as they go back and forth in the discussion. An advantage of using this organizer is that it allows students to plan in advance what evidence they would like to present to the class or group as well as to prepare for how to respond effectively to possible rebuttals from opposing peers, a challenging but needed communication skill in scientific discourse.

Similarly, the Discussion Guide (see Figure 4) displays a graphic organizer for assisting students in building their arguments for a discussion while also providing a script to guide them using self-talk. The Discussion Guide is best used in small groups where the student is talking to no more than four or five peers. This organizer also emphasizes the importance of marshaling credible evidence for a particular perspective. Students can take information directly from the Discussion Organizer and record it on the Discussion Guide. Using these supports in tandem will promote the understanding that thoughts and ideas can be translated into verbal format, which can then be communicated and shared with peers during discussions. Teachers should use observations of students during discussions and data collected from work samples to gauge how much priming, modeling, or other instructional support will be needed when introducing the Discussion Form and Discussion Guide. As the discussions occur, teachers can also use a nonverbal cue such as pointing to a key point on the form to prompt student participation and train peer models in the group to do so as well. Doing so provides teachers a noninvasive way to provide support with a prompt that can be easily faded to increase participation in discussions.

Figure 4.

Discussion Guide to be used when preparing for group discussion.

Organizers such as those above may be used in whole group, small group and individual activities. When introducing graphic organizers, and to differentiate for optimal student participation as well as accommodate a variety of ability levels, it is helpful to begin by creating partially completed graphic organizers for students (Walther-Thomas, Korinek, McLaughlin, & Williams, 2000). Teachers should carefully monitor initial use of the graphic organizers and provide scaffolded support until students are able to apply all forms independently to their learning and discussions.

Conclusion

Science education is important for all learners. It not only facilitates an understanding of science itself, but also offers students the ability to question their own lives and formulate thinking to make informed decisions (Jimenez et al., 2014). Scientific thinking also enhances the ability of all students to secure and maintain meaningful and productive employment, with the skills to learn, reason, think creatively, make decisions, and solve problems in an ongoing way (NRC, 2012).

For students with high-functioning ASD, many of whom may who possess the requisite skills to pursue postsecondary education opportunities, science courses may be especially interesting as previous research suggests these students have relatively high rates of postsecondary STEM enrollment when compared to students of other disability categories and even the general population (Chen & Weko, 2009). In addition, with the increasing national interest in sustaining a world-class science and engineering workforce to remain competitive in an ever-increasing technologically driven global economy (Nagle, Marder, & Schiller, 2009), students with ASD who successfully pursue STEM as college majors are well positioned to become meaningful contributors to this important and emerging field. Despite trends that suggest science as a relative area of strength for students with ASD, specific strategies for developing effective science discourse skills are required. Incorporating visuals and other concrete supports assists individuals with ASD whose strengths include processing visual and/or written information (Marans et al., 2005). As described, there are numerous examples of visual supports available to teachers to facilitate science discourse for students with ASD. Employing such strategies can create a meaningful context for promoting the attention, participation, communication, and overall learning acquisition of children with ASD in science discussions.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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