Building School Connectedness for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Abstract

Designing and implementing effective interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) continues to challenge teachers. School connectedness is an emerging construct that is preventative for engagement in health-risk behavior and bullying. This article highlights a shift in intervention design and proposes a multifaceted intervention to meet the unique needs of students with EBD. Each component of the school connectedness construct is discussed with accompanying intervention strategies that can be implemented simultaneously to improve the behavioral and academic outcomes for students with EBD.

Keywords

emotional and behavioral disorders behavior intervention strategies involvement family multicultural diversity

Meeting the needs of students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is challenging. These students often experience multiple difficulties within the school environment leading to a breakdown in their connectedness to the school environment (Evans & Lester, 2012; Kern, 2015). They also typically experience incidents of school removal due to health-risk behavior (e.g., substance abuse, weapon-related violence, physical violence resulting in serious bodily injury), have the highest dropout rate among adolescent students with disabilities (35%), and are more involved in punitive disciplinary actions related to their behavior (Kern, 2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2016). While many of these school-related issues are directly related to these students’ difficulties with developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, teachers still struggle with designing interventions to address these needs (Kern, 2015). It is becoming increasingly critical that interventions meet the needs of students with EBD (Kern, 2015). Rather than create specifically targeted interventions (e.g., specific positive praise, school involvement activities, goal setting, parent involvement), educators may choose to create comprehensive interventions to develop school connectedness of students with EBD, addressing a number of variables that contribute to improving academic and behavioral outcomes (Blum, 2005; Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming, & Hawkins, 2004).

Currently, school connectedness is viewed as a preventative intervention designed to address issues related to the school-to-prison pipeline (i.e., behavior problems in school resulting in delinquency), bullying, disciplinary practices, and engagement in health-risk behavior (e.g., substance abuse, violent or deviant behavior, suicide; Chrislte, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2005; O’Brennan, Waasdorp, & Bradshaw, 2014; Shippen, Patterson, Green, & Smitherman, 2012). Much of the intervention research in this area involves programs designed to foster positive teacher-student relationships and create safe and positive learning environments for students who struggle in educational environments (Anderson-Butcher, 2010; Shippen et al., 2012). Seeing as these are similar issues concerning students with EBD, addressing school connectedness for this population is a natural progression for intervention development.

Components of School Connectedness

School connectedness is the extent that students feel staff and peers in their academic environment care about them as individuals, their academic success, and their overall well-being (Blum, 2005; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2009). The concept is made up of three components: (a) school bonding and attachment, (b) school engagement, and (c) school climate.

School bonding refers to students’ ability to create and maintain interpersonal relationships with both adults and peers on their school campus (Chapman, Buckely, Sheehan, & Shochet, 2013). As students create relationships with staff and peers on campus, they begin to develop values and beliefs associated with their group membership (Catalano et al., 2004). Students with EBD often struggle with school bonding as they experience difficulties creating and maintaining positive relationships with staff and peers at school (Kern, 2015; Lane, Carter, Pierson, & Glaeser, 2006).

School attachment, which can be considered an extension of school bonding, is the extent that a student enjoys school (Libbey, 2004). As students develop more positive relationships with staff and peers on campus, their attitude toward school and extent of involvement in school improves (Catalano et al., 2004). Students who have high levels of school attachment enjoy being at school, feel they contribute to the school environment, and participate in school-sponsored clubs, activities, and organizations (Blum, 2005). Students with EBD typically struggle with school attachment as they may not be afforded the same opportunities and access to school-sponsored clubs, activities, and organizations, due to the extent of their behavioral issues on campus (Eriksson, Welander, & Granlund, 2007; Reschly & Christenson, 2006).

School engagement is the degree to which a student engages in school-related behavior (e.g., attending school, completing classwork, setting academic goals; Catalano et al., 2004; Farrington et al., 2012). School-related behavior consists of academic behaviors (e.g., attending class, completing classwork, turning in homework), goal setting, and self-management (Carter, Lane, Crnobori, Bruhn, & Oakes, 2011; Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007; Menzies, Lane, & Lee, 2009). Students who have high levels of school engagement frequently set and achieve academic as well as personal goals (Duckworth et al., 2007; Farrington et al., 2012). Students with EBD may struggle with school engagement as their social deficits and frequent removal from school reduce their likelihood of academic success in the school environment (Lane et al., 2006; Reschly & Christenson, 2006; Ryan, Pierce, & Mooney, 2008).

School climate refers to students’ perceived degree of safety at school, which includes their perception of whether or not school staff value diversity (Bucalos & Lingo, 2005; Gage, Larson, Sugai, & Chafouleas, 2016). Schools that have clear and explicit rules that are equally equitable to all students, promote proactive approaches to problem behavior, and maintain fair discipline practices, enhance the predictability of the school environment, which ensures physical and emotional safety (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009; Regan & Michaud, 2011). Students with EBD typically experience negative school climate effects because they are disadvantaged by the development of harsh school discipline policies, including zero-tolerance policies (Evans & Lester, 2012; Hecker, Young, & Caldarella, 2014).

Rather than creating specifically targeted interventions addressing school bonding, attachment, engagement, or climate effects in isolation for students with EBD, educators may choose to design school connectedness interventions that encompass all of these options. Creating a comprehensive intervention to build levels of school connectedness for these children/youth addresses the needs of the whole child accounting for a variety of variables that lead to engagement in problem behavior and difficulty at school. Fortunately for teachers, interventions that address the components of school connectedness are relatively simple, address multiple student needs, and can benefit all students in the classroom.

Improving School Connectedness for Students with EBD

Developing an intervention package to improve levels of school connectedness involves targeting school bonding and attachment, school engagement, and school climate simultaneously. For each component of school connectedness there are a variety of intervention options for improving both teacher and student skill sets. For the purposes of this article, only one intervention strategy for each component of school connectedness will be addressed. Each intervention is evidence-based and can be implemented in conjunction with each of the other suggested interventions to improve levels of school connectedness for students with EBD.

Developing School Bonding and Attachment

The creation of relationships is the foundation of school bonding, in particular the teacher-student relationship, as this relationship is foundational to the school experience. Positive teacher-student relationships are fundamental for classroom management as well as academic and behavioral success (Bucalos & Lingo, 2005; Petrie, 2014). Teachers who understand and value their students as individuals utilize high amounts of positive interactions to create safe and positive learning environments (Bucalos & Lingo, 2005; Regan & Michaud, 2011). The use of specific positive praise contingent on appropriate behavior is a highly effective form of positive reinforcement that is flexible enough to meet diverse student needs as well as communicate and maintain behavioral expectations (Heward, 2003; Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008). Use of frequent specific positive praise can result in more frequent incidences of prosocial communication between students with EBD and their teacher, resulting in the development of a more positive teacher-student relationship (Heward, 2003; Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008).

To be effective, specific positive praise should follow a set of criteria. Most important is the specificity and the immediacy of the praise (Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008; Reavis et al., 1996). Students should be told exactly what they were doing that earned them the praise and that praise should occur immediately when the behavior is observed. Specificity informs students of the exact behavior they were displaying that resulted in the positive praise from the teacher (Heward, 2003). Immediacy increases the likelihood that the student will perform those same behaviors again in future (Heward, 2003; Kennedy, Jolivette, & Ramsay, 2014). Specific positive praise also should be used frequently, have variety, and be authentic. A frequency ratio of four instances of praise for every one reprimand or instance of corrective feedback is ideal (Reavis et al., 1996). Variety refers to the type of praise used (e.g., praising multiple behaviors) as well as the variety of students receiving praise (Kennedy et al., 2014). All students should receive praise often, including those who frequently engage in problem behavior (Heward, 2003). Last, it’s important to be genuine with praise and remain consistent to your own personality and style when using praise (Reavis et al., 1996). See Table 1 for steps on implementing a specific positive praise program in the classroom.

Table 1.

Implementing Specific Positive Praise to Improve School Bonding of Students With EBD.

Step and Corresponding Research	Direct Implementation
Determine desired student specific behaviors to apply specific positive praise (Cooper et al., 2007; Heward, 2003; Kennedy & Jolivette, 2008; Reavis et al., 1996)	● Select 3–5 behaviors to improve ● Post expected behaviors around classroom using positive terms (i.e., what to do) ● Teach/model proper performance of expected behaviors
Use specific positive praise frequently upon occurrence (Cooper et al., 2007; Heward, 2003; Reavis et al., 1996; Walker et al., 2003)	● Praise students each time they engage in the outlined expected behaviors (e.g., thank you for raising your hand, excellent sitting and waiting, nice walking) ● Provide praise immediately upon student performance (i.e., within a half of a second of occurrence) ● Praise students more often than reprimanding or giving corrective feedback
Use variety with your praise (Cooper et al., 2007; Heward, 2003; Kennedy et al., 2014)	● Praise all students as often as possible ● Use verbal praise, visual cues (e.g., thumbs up), or written note feedback options depending on student preference ● Praise spontaneous positive behaviors above and beyond the set expectations and praise behavior during all aspects of the academic day (e.g., during instruction, during independent practice, in the hallway, in the cafeteria, waiting for buses) ● Pair praises with a token economy or other positive reinforcement classroom systems ● Pair praise with access to individualized student attention
Be genuine with your praise (Reavis et al., 1996)	● Use your typical tone ● Make eye contact ● Show enthusiasm consistent with your personality

While using specific positive praise is important for student success, it does not address student goals or promote their individual interests, which also are fundamental aspects of developing positive teacher-student relationships (CDC, 2009; Chapman et al., 2013). Students should be provided the opportunity to engage in after-school activities and programs related to their personal goals and interests (Anderson-Butcher, 2010; Walsh, Ozaeta, & Wright, 2010). For students with EBD, the opportunity to access after-school activities hinges on concerns with the structure of the settings and their engagement in problem behavior (Farrell, Collier-Meek, & Pons, 2013; Lane et al., 2006). To support this need, school staff should collaborate with colleagues and community members to develop a variety of extracurricular after-school activities designed to support engagement in or the development of prosocial behavior of all students (Farrell et al., 2013; Monahan, Oesterle, & Hawkins, 2010). After-school activities and programs can provide experiences that promote physical activity as well as individual and career development, and has the potential to strengthen teacher-student relationships (Anderson-Butcher, 2010; Walsh et al., 2010). See Table 2 for school involvement strategies to build school attachment for students with EBD.

Table 2.

Implementing School Involvement Strategies to Improve School Attachment of Students With EBD.

Step and Corresponding Research	Direct Implementation
Assess student interests and involvement options (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Benitez, Lattimore, & Wehmeyer, 2005)	● Meet with students individually to discuss interests and goals ● Gather school club/organization information from colleagues and research community programs that match student interests and goals
Collaborate with colleagues and community members (Anderson-Butcher, 2010; Farrell et al., 2013; McNeely, Nonnemaker, & Blum, 2002; Monahan et al., 2010; Walsh et al., 2010)	● Meet with campus colleagues who run school clubs/organizations or who collaborate with community agencies ● Discuss enrollment options, behavioral expectations, attendance expectations, skills necessary to participate, participation options, transportation requirements, and family participation options ● Develop a behavior plan outlining the club/organization expectations, adult/staff responsibilities, and student reinforcement options ● Teach club/organization expectations and necessary skills in class ● Collaborate with families and school transportation staff to create a transportation plan (e.g., ride the late bus, family pick up, location of pick up) ● Follow up on student level of participation and behavioral performance ● Reteach necessary behavioral expectations and skills to further enhance student participation and performance
Offer family participation opportunities (Ayers, 2016; Catalano et al., 2004; Kroth & Edge, 2007)	● Create a schedule of times and locations of possible club/organization opportunities ● Outline participation and volunteer opportunities for family members to engage in with their children

Improving School Engagement

When relationships are established and students begin to become invested in school, school engagement interventions can improve their success in school. An effective intervention to improve school engagement is goal setting. Goal setting refers to a student’s ability to predetermine a desired academic or social outcome and engage in behavior consistent with achieving that goal (Catalano et al., 2004; Duckworth et al., 2007). Student acquisition of goal setting skills can extend beyond the boundaries of school as it also is linked to postsecondary outcomes including academic achievement in higher education and acquiring and maintaining employment (Benitez et al., 2005). Researchers have found that goal setting can improve the abilities of students with EBD to create goals and engage in behavior consistent with achieving those goals (Benitez et al., 2005; Duckworth et al., 2007; Menzies et al., 2009).

To engage in goal setting activities, teachers should begin by collaborating with students to set personalized academic and behavioral goals (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer, 2011). During this collaboration teachers should have students answer questions about their interests, imagine their future, and discuss influential people in their lives to help develop student specific goals (Benitez et al., 2005; Duckworth et al., 2011; Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000). Following the goal setting collaboration, the teacher and student should devise an action plan outlining student behaviors and action steps required to achieve each goal paired with data collection procedures for evidence of achievement (Benitez et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2008). The final step consists of daily or weekly follow-ups to discuss data, monitor progress toward achieving the outlined goals, and problem solve identified barriers to achieving those goals (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Benitez et al., 2005; Duckworth et al., 2007; Wehmeyer et al., 2000). See Table 3 for steps to implement goal-setting activities in the classroom.

Table 3.

Implementing Goal Setting to Improve School Engagement of Students With EBD.

Step and Corresponding Research	Direct Implementation
Begin with student collaboration (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Benitez et al., 2005; Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2000)	● Meet with students individually to discuss personal interests and influential people or events in their lives ● Pair with answering Wehmeyer et al. (2000) reflection questions (i.e., what do I want to learn, what do I know about it, what must I do to achieve this?) ● Along with student, select a single long-term goal with accompanying measureable short-term goals or benchmarks
Engage in action planning (Benitez et al., 2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2000)	● Create a plan consisting of measureable behaviors (e.g., coming to school, remaining in class, turning in classwork), desired behavioral outcomes (e.g., arrive to class on time for 5 of 6 class periods each day), people involved (e.g., staff, student, other adults), roles and responsibilities of each person involved, and data to be collected (e.g., behavioral data, work samples, action steps completed) and schedule follow-up data review and reflection times (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly) ● Pair with Wehmeyer et al. (2000) action questions (i.e., what can I do to learn what I don’t know, what are some barriers, how can I address these barriers, when will I start?)
Set time aside for maintenance activities (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Benitez et al., 2005; Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth et al., 2011; Wehmeyer et al., 2000)	● Review data with student ● Discuss what’s working and what’s problematic, but remain positive and focused on achieving the desired goal ● Track and graph progress toward long-term goal ● Adjust action steps if needed ● Pair with Wehmeyer et al. (2000) reflection questions (i.e., what actions have been done, what barriers have been removed, what have I learned, is there more that I need to learn?) ● Continue to have frequent data follow-up and reflection sessions until long-term goal is achieved and set a new goal

Fostering a Positive School Climate

School climate is the quality of school life comprised of experiences, social norms, goals, values, and practices that are shared between teachers, administrators, students, and families (Cohen et al., 2009; Gage et al., 2016). Promoting positive school and classroom climates includes partnerships between school, community, and family members who strive for collaboration to develop and work toward a shared school vision (Cohen et al., 2009; Gage et al., 2016). A lack of a shared vision of education between the school and a student’s family can be a significant barrier to a student’s level of school connectedness (Bucalos & Lingo, 2005; Regan & Michaud, 2011). This is particularly important for students with EBD as their difficulty building and maintaining relationships and frequent removal from school may lead to families becoming dissatisfied with their child’s school experience (Achilles, McLaughlin, & Croninger, 2007). Teachers of students with EBD can address these school climate effects by creating positive school-home relationships.

Involving parents in their children’s education is essential to student academic and behavioral success (Toren & Seginer, 2015). Due to the evolution of the family and the numerous variables prohibiting parents from attending regular school functions, new and innovative methods are required to build school-home relationships (Edwards, 2016). To begin this process, teachers of students with EBD should gather data about their students’ families. To gather family-related data, teachers can send home a brief teacher-created questionnaire with items addressing size of the family, language spoken at home, employment of adults, interests and hobbies the family does together, and space for families to provide other important information (Ayers, 2016; Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak, & Shogren, 2014). Professionals and families can build trustful and respectful partnerships by working toward the common goal of helping their child succeed (Turnbull et al., 2014). Gathering this pertinent information is the first step to developing a trustful and respectful partnership (Ayers, 2016; Turnbull et al., 2014).

Once family information is obtained, the teacher must assess their data and, based on the data, create a variety of opportunities for parents to participate in their child’s school environment (Kroth & Edge, 2007). This can consist of varied times for parents to attend school/classroom events, volunteer opportunities, or collaboration opportunities, but also could be as simple as devising individual systems for frequent school-home communication (Edwards, 2016; Kroth & Edge, 2007). Parent involvement programs that provide parents with variety in terms of participation based on their preferences are the most successful at improving school climate as well as promoting school connectedness (CDC, 2009; Comer & Haynes, 1991). See Table 4 for steps to improve school-home relationships.

Table 4.

Implementing Family Involvement to Improve School Climate of Students With EBD.

Step and Corresponding Research	Direct Implementation
Create a family assessment (Ayers, 2016; Edwards, 2016; Turnbull et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2006)	● Create a take-home questionnaire to gather family-related data including demographic questions such as: the size of the family, family characteristics (e.g., single-parent, two-parent), types of employment of adults in the household, language spoken at home, who best to contact regarding school information, and preferred method of contact (e.g., phone call, email, sent home with student) ● Include family-related questions including hobbies the family enjoys doing together, family interests, school-related interests or concerns, best time of day to meet or participate in school-related activities, and allow space for families to provide other important information they wish to share ● Parents may prefer to respond by email, phone, or complete a paper version sent home with their child
Create family involvement opportunities (Comer & Haynes, 1991; Edwards, 2016; Kroth & Edge, 2007)	● Analyze family data and create possible involvement opportunities and notify parents of upcoming school-related activities and functions according to their preferred method of contact ● Devise alternative ways to disseminate information from school-related functions for parents (e.g., tour of the school during the school day, meet with teachers/coaches during prep times) ● Create a schedule of volunteer opportunities (e.g., classroom assistant, present to class about family hobbies/interests, assist with other school-related activities (e.g., dances, athletics, clubs) with varied times for participation ● Create a classroom collaboration schedule to provide families with classroom information, opportunities to learn more about families, provide training in behavior management, or collaborate to develop a school-home behavior management plan and hold regular classroom collaboration sessions (e.g., monthly, bimonthly) ● Create a class website for parents to access schedules of events, sign up for volunteer opportunities, and access classroom materials Contact parents frequently to report student successes

Step and Corresponding Research

Direct Implementation

Create a family assessment (Ayers, 2016; Edwards, 2016; Turnbull et al., 2014; Weiss et al., 2006)

● Create a take-home questionnaire to gather family-related data including demographic questions such as: the size of the family, family characteristics (e.g., single-parent, two-parent), types of employment of adults in the household, language spoken at home, who best to contact regarding school information, and preferred method of contact (e.g., phone call, email, sent home with student)
● Include family-related questions including hobbies the family enjoys doing together, family interests, school-related interests or concerns, best time of day to meet or participate in school-related activities, and allow space for families to provide other important information they wish to share
● Parents may prefer to respond by email, phone, or complete a paper version sent home with their child

Create family involvement opportunities (Comer & Haynes, 1991; Edwards, 2016; Kroth & Edge, 2007)

● Analyze family data and create possible involvement opportunities and notify parents of upcoming school-related activities and functions according to their preferred method of contact
● Devise alternative ways to disseminate information from school-related functions for parents (e.g., tour of the school during the school day, meet with teachers/coaches during prep times)
● Create a schedule of volunteer opportunities (e.g., classroom assistant, present to class about family hobbies/interests, assist with other school-related activities (e.g., dances, athletics, clubs) with varied times for participation
● Create a classroom collaboration schedule to provide families with classroom information, opportunities to learn more about families, provide training in behavior management, or collaborate to develop a school-home behavior management plan and hold regular classroom collaboration sessions (e.g., monthly, bimonthly)
● Create a class website for parents to access schedules of events, sign up for volunteer opportunities, and access classroom materials
Contact parents frequently to report student successes

Conclusion

Students with EBD experience gaps in their social and emotional development that can affect their ability to effectively navigate the school environment (Chapman et al., 2013). These gaps affect their development of prosocial behaviors as well as school-related behaviors, increasing the risk of students becoming disconnected from the school environment (Catalano et al., 2004; Chapman et al., 2013; Toshalis, 2015). While the outlined interventions are effective for all levels of programming for students with EBD, their age also is a factor of their level of school connectedness. As these students grow older, their levels of school connectedness begin to diminish as adolescence is a period of significant physiological change in which emotional and behavioral difficulties may become more prevalent (McNeely et al., 2002; Merikangas et al., 2010). Also, as they age, the likelihood that they experience adverse outcomes (e.g., dropping out of school, engaging in delinquent behavior) increases, expediting the importance that teachers begin to develop interventions to improve their levels of school connectedness (Catalano et al., 2004; Fitzpatrick & Knowlton, 2009; Hecker et al., 2014). Understanding and enhancing the school connectedness of students with EBD may be the missing key to improving their school experiences as well as their academic and behavioral outcomes (Blum, 2005; Kern, 2015).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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