Abstract
Educators often seek innovative strategies to support academic instruction for struggling students. For students with or at risk for a learning disability in mathematics, challenges learning critical skills often result in them falling behind their grade-level peers. One strategy that can provide targeted instruction on key concepts is video modeling. Teacher-made videos serve as a valuable resource for struggling students to access supplementary teaching beyond the classroom. This column highlights six steps for teachers to follow when developing video modeling to support instruction for students with a learning disability.
Mathematics teachers regularly face large class sizes comprised of a broad range of learners, including students with or at risk for a learning disability (LD) in mathematics (Geary et al., 2012). Innovative strategies are often needed to support these students’ learning in class. One strategy that utilizes technology to make mathematics more accessible to struggling students is video modeling. As a variation of video-based interventions (VBIs), video modeling encompasses explicit instruction of skills by a teacher using a video recording. Once students watch the video, they practice completing the skills themselves. Over two decades, research on video modeling for students with LD examined teaching (a) operations (Bottge et al., 2003), (b) fractions (E. M. Hughes, 2019; Morris et al., 2021), (c) multistep ratio and percentage problems (Kellems et al., 2016), (d) algebra (Satsangi, Billman, et al., 2021; Satsangi, Hammer, & Raines, 2021), and (e) geometry (Cihak & Bowlin, 2009; Satsangi et al., 2019, 2020).
Video modeling in mathematics provides students with LD a broad range of benefits, including the opportunity to re-watch multiple demonstrations of an exemplar and the reuse of videos across classrooms and grade levels. In addition, teachers can pair their daily teaching with supplemental instruction for students to review when practicing problems independently at home. For students facing personal hardships or extenuating health issues that lead to chronic absence from school, such resources can keep them engaged with the day-to-day skills covered in class. For these reasons, teachers can benefit by adopting video modeling to supplement their existing classroom practices. This column presents six steps for teachers to follow to create and use video modeling in mathematics to support students with LD. See Table 1 for a summary of these steps and resources to consider. Recommendations presented here align with guidance put forth by E. M. Hughes and Yakubova (2016) and Kellems and Edwards (2016) on designing VBIs for students with disabilities and research supporting video modeling for students with LD (Cihak & Bowlin, 2009; Satsangi, Billman, et al., 2021; Satsangi et al., 2019, 2020; Satsangi, Hammer, & Raines, 2021).
Steps and Resources for Developing Video Modeling Lessons.
Step 1: Access Hardware
Teachers must access recording equipment to create videos. To begin this pursuit, teachers should consult with their school’s technology specialist to determine the types of resources that are available to them. Options to record videos include digital camcorders, computers with webcams, tablets, and smartphones. For all such devices, ensure they are updated with the most recent available operating system and possess sufficient memory to save video content or to download apps with which videos will be recorded. Additional tools such as a stylus for creating videos on a tablet, a microphone to amplify voice, headphones, and external lighting may also be warranted.
Step 2: Access Software
Once all hardware is gathered, decide how to record the video. Two options exist to complete this task. The first entails recording videos directly onto the selected device using its camera functionality (e.g., a teacher recording themselves talking directly into the camera). After recording all content using the device in this manner, teachers will need access to video editing software to export and edit the content recorded. Notably, many tablets and smartphones possess preloaded software from the manufacturer that allows users to edit video content recorded on the device. For instance, Apple iPads and iPhones running iOS provide Clips (https://www.apple.com/clips/), a free mobile video editing app that lets users combine video clips and still images with filters, title cards, graphics, and audio. Alternatively, teachers can also use one of the many third-party apps that exist on the market to record and edit videos. One such example is ShowMe (https://www.showme.com), a low-cost app that allows users to record videos via a whiteboard interface upon which problems can be solved with accompanying second-person point-of-view narration. For each of these options, software can be downloaded onto devices directly from the Apple App Store or Google Play Store.
Step 3: Identify the Skill
To design lessons, identify specific curriculum-based skills to teach within videos. Each skill should align to a mathematics standard, such as those put forth by the Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010) or individual states’ standards. The selected standard should address content currently being taught in the classroom or encompass prerequisite skills covered in earlier lessons. When selecting a skill, consider whether to teach one skill per video, or group similar skills together within one video. For example, following the common sequencing of Algebra 1 standards, one single video could cover solving equations possessing one variable and then segue directly into the next standard on solving pairs of simultaneous equations. Once a skill is selected, complete a task analysis on the standard, which encompasses breaking the skill down into smaller, individual components (Spooner et al., 2017). In mathematics education, a task analysis determines the specific number of steps needed to teach a mathematical skill and solve related problems. Subsequently, this information will inform the modeling section of your instruction when recording the lesson.
Step 4: Record the Lesson
When devising and recording a mathematics lesson, teachers are advised to emphasize practices shown effective for teaching students with LD. Such strategies include (a) explicit teaching of skills, (b) use of varying representations to convey ideas, and (c) an emphasis on supporting meta-cognition for students. The following section briefly expands on each of these practices.
Explicitly Teach Skills
Video modeling should explicitly teach students how to solve a mathematics problem. As an evidence-based practice for students with LD (C. A. Hughes et al., 2017, 2019), explicit instruction centers on the teacher introducing a new skill, reviewing prerequisite concepts, modeling specific steps needed to determine a solution, and then directing students through guided and independent practice while offering corrective feedback (Archer & Hughes, 2011). To develop mathematics videos for students with LD, each of these stages of teaching should be featured.
To begin, provide an introduction to the viewer that summarizes the skill that will be covered in the video and review key vocabulary terms. For instance, if teaching students how to solve one-step equations, terminology such as variables, coefficients, constants, operator, inverse operations, and equality would need to be reviewed prior to teaching students how to solve problems. At the end of this section, provide explicit directions to the student stating what they will be expected to do as they watch each subsequent portion of the video. This can include tasks such as taking notes, completing practice problems, or following along with a teacher-provided study guide. From here, present students with one example problem on screen and identify all of its properties. For instance, for solving one-step equations, depict a problem such as 3x + 4 = 7 and identify the variable (x), the coefficient (3), the constants (4 and 7), the operator (addition), and the equal sign partitioning two sides of the equation. Afterward, model for students how to complete the problem systematically in a series of sequential steps as determined by the task analysis completed in Step 3. For example, solving 3x + 4 = 7 would require two steps: The first step would depict subtracting 4 from each side of the equation resulting in a simplified equation of 3x = 3, followed by the second step of dividing by 3 from each side, resulting in a solution of x = 1. After completing each step on screen, prompt the viewer to pause the video if needed to record their notes or to reflect on what was demonstrated, and then proceed when ready. Teachers are advised to model multiple example problems in a lesson depicting a variety of scenarios for the skills taught. For instance, if the first example modeled on screen is 3x + 4 = 7, subsequent problems may include 12 = 3x + 6 and −3 − 4x = 9. When narrating each example, be sure to explicitly highlight the commonalities and differences between each problem to aid students in making connections between mathematical properties.
After modeling problems, provide guided practice through one or more example problems while instructing the student to practice the same problem at their seat using a teacher-provided worksheet. For this portion of the lesson, explicitly direct students to pause the video and attempt to complete each step independently first, and then resume the video to verify whether they did so correctly. In the example mentioned above, 3x + 4 = 7, students would be told to pause the video before both steps were solved on screen to gauge their ability to complete inverse operations across the equal sign (i.e., subtracting 4 first, and then dividing by 3). Last, independent practice problems should be given to students to assess their understanding of the lesson. Note, video modeling cannot provide corrective feedback in real time to students as they solve problems unless a teacher is present. However, teachers can partially address this issue by taking time within videos to review common mistakes students commit before introducing independent practice problems. For example, common errors students make when first learning to solve one-step equations include completing the wrong operation to combine like terms (e.g., adding 4 and 7) or combining unlike terms (e.g., combining 3x and 7). Highlighting such mistakes preemptively on screen may stop students from committing repeated errors when solving problems on their own.
Depict Multiple Representations
To convey key ideas in a lesson, a variety of representations should be illustrated to students to support their cognition. Visual representations demonstrate a problem’s mathematical properties while helping students conceptualize an idea visually (van Garderen et al., 2014). In mathematics, examples of visual representations include base-10 blocks for illustrating place value and subitizing, pie charts and bar strips depicting fractional values, number lines to add and subtract numbers, graphs for comparing statistical data, and graphic organizers for categorizing and recalling information. Visual representations such as these often help students with LD visualize procedural and conceptual laden problems such as word problems—a critical skill at every grade level of mathematics (Boonen et al., 2014). When using representations, the sequence and timing of visuals within an instructional lesson should always be considered, as too many representations presented simultaneously or too rapidly may confuse a student.
To incorporate representations, embed static images and dynamic animations into the instructional portions of the lesson—where the teacher introduces the skill, reviews prerequisite concepts, and models the steps of a problem to find a solution. If recording videos directly onto a mobile device, make explicit reference to representations while talking into the camera (e.g., direct the viewer’s attention to a figure or graph depicted on a tabletop easel pad positioned next to you). Alternatively, if a video is created using an app such as ShowMe, draw representations directly onto the whiteboard interface using a stylus and the program’s features that allow users to develop tables, figures, and text in varying colors and sizes. Figure 1 depicts a screenshot of a lesson created using such a program. The video illustrates multiple representations for teaching addition of fractions with unlike denominators; fraction values are represented using symbolic notations (i.e., numbers and signs) as well as fractional tiles of differing lengths to illustrate the concepts of proportions and equivalence (i.e., tiles representing
Video modeling lesson depicting multiple representations.
Emphasize Meta-Cognition
Meta-cognitive strategies aid students in being cognizant of their own thought process (Montague et al., 2011; Pfannenstiel et al., 2015). In mathematics, these strategies help students connect ideas to their prior knowledge, determine what a problem is asking for, decide what strategy is most appropriate to find its solution, monitor whether all the steps of the chosen strategy were completed correctly, and verify whether their answer makes sense based on the question asked. When developing videos, teachers are advised to use two meta-cognitive strategies, self-instruction and self-monitoring within the guided and independent practice portions of a lesson. Self-instruction entails students asking themselves questions as they solve a problem. Example questions include, “What is this problem asking for?” and “Do I have enough information to use this formula?” Prior to completing practice problems, remind students to ask themselves reflective questions associated with the types of problems being solved. For example, for a lesson teaching word problems possessing additive schemas, remind students to ask themselves questions such as, “Am I looking for the total combined amount of the values? Am I looking to compare the difference between amounts? Or, am I looking for the overall change in an amount?” In addition, include these same prompts on the top of the page of accompanying worksheets given to students in class.
Another meta-cognitive strategy is self-monitoring, which entails students checking whether their work is correct using a checklist. Following every guided practice problem, depict a visual checklist on screen for students to verify whether they completed all of the necessary steps before moving on. Place the checklist on a separate screen with the problem-solving steps enumerated and listed vertically for students to review in order. Much like reflective questions, a self-monitoring checklist can also be included directly on the students’ worksheets for them to reference as they solve problems following the lesson.
Step 5: Disseminate the Video
Once developed, teachers should introduce videos to their class one at a time, and tactically adopt them for small group learning or individual use based on each class’s unique circumstances (Altemueller & Lindquist, 2017). For example, when teaching multiplication to elementary students, begin your class period by showing a video on a smartboard to the entire classroom summarizing the concept’s key properties. On the smartboard, model for students how to navigate the video as it plays, including showing students how to play, pause, rewind, and resume the lesson. In addition, pause the video periodically to gather initial class-wide formative assessment data from students. Activities for this task can include asking open- and closed-ended questions to students, as they respond using dry erase paddles or participation cards (Fennell et al., 2017). Once the video has concluded, break the class into smaller groups of two to three for station work based on the students’ strengths or needs. Provide each group with a tablet or Chromebook to access videos and worksheets possessing five to 10 prepared problems. Instruct each group to watch their respective video together and then practice solving problems collaboratively. In this example, one group of struggling students might review a video depicting a number line representation teaching them to solve multiplication facts by skip counting, whereas another group of students that demonstrate different strengths watch a video illustrating multiplication as equal groups or repeated addition.
Step 6: Monitor Student Progress
As students access videos individually or in small groups at their desks, navigate the classroom to monitor student progress and provide corrective feedback. Specifically, verify whether students are actively listening as they progress through videos and complete guided and independent practice problems. Multiple online platforms exist that enable progress monitoring through video modeling instruction. One such example is Edpuzzle (https://edpuzzle.com/). To use this program, first create an account, set up a virtual class, and invite students to enroll. Then, upload a teacher-created video directly onto the platform and edit its content (using the program’s editing tools) to feature practice problems within the lesson. Once finalized, share the video with students and instruct them to watch and answer questions directly on the platform. Their responses, as well as data analytics such as the number of times students watched each section of the video can be reviewed by the teacher in real time. Moreover, the teacher can then provide personalized feedback to students from their own account.
In circumstances where videos are provided to students to facilitate distance learning from home, progress monitoring can be conducted through synchronous virtual meetings scheduled with students after a video and homework assignment are assigned in class. Student meetings provide teachers the opportunity to collect valuable individual formative assessment data on student growth (Fennell et al., 2017). Within such meetings, review the student’s progress completing practice problems, provide corrective feedback on their note taking or problem solving, and discuss their mathematical thinking of concepts addressed in each video. In addition, when students use videos as a study guide, make modifications to the accompanying worksheets to support student reflection. For instance, in place of students discussing their thought process on the steps of a problem with a teacher or peer, reflection prompts can be listed after each problem asking students to explain their rationale in writing. Teachers can then review these written responses to ensure students are developing a correct understanding of concepts. Thereafter, students should be given maintenance and generalization checks periodically in class through validated assessments to ensure they retained the ability to solve problems correctly and independently (E. M. Hughes & Yakubova, 2016).
Conclusion
Planning and collaboration among teachers with buy-in from administrators can make video development practical and time-efficient. For instance, video development can be incorporated into a teacher’s existing planning time after school. In some instances, teachers can take the very same lessons they created for a day’s classroom instruction and record them by following the six steps outlined in this column. Once videos are developed, teachers can upload them onto their school’s professional learning management system (e.g., Schoology) or use the broad outreach of social media (e.g., a teacher’s professional Twitter account) to share videos with others. Videos will then be available in perpetuity every semester for students to use as a review of previously taught content. School administrators can aid in this endeavor by dedicating professional development time during work hours for general and special education staff to collaborate on building and sharing video libraries of skills. By using such opportunities, teachers can create supplemental resources to support their students’ learning while doing so in a manner that is compatible with their busy schedules.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
