Preparing Teachers to Facilitate Engagement in Reading Intervention Through Embedded Behavioral Supports

Abstract

Reading intervention sessions are most effective when students are engaged. Combined interventions that target both reading and engagement may produce stronger outcomes in both domains than separate interventions for each goal. They also have advantages of being efficient, thus requiring fewer resources. However, planning and executing combined interventions may be challenging to novice teachers. This article presents guidance for teacher educators to address combined reading and engagement support interventions in the context of a university reading methods course and applied fieldwork setting. The article outlines the importance of engagement to reading instruction and offers a framework for training teachers to implement reading interventions with embedded engagement supports, toward the overall goal of maximizing effectiveness of the reading instruction. Resources, tools, and sample activities are presented to further illustrate these concepts and facilitate their application in classrooms.

Keywords

reading engagement behavior intervention teacher preparation

In teacher training programs, methods courses focused on reading instruction and intervention serve a central role in preparing pre-service teachers to provide high-quality, evidence-based reading instruction to students with intensive needs in reading (e.g., learning disabilities). Such courses typically focus on understanding typical and atypical reading development, identifying students in need of reading intervention, implementing instructional methods that align with the science of reading, and using progress monitoring to evaluate and adjust instruction to meet students’ individual needs. Reading methods courses with an applied fieldwork component, such as a tutoring practicum, can provide a valuable experience for practicing the delivery of reading interventions and aligning instruction and assessment (Wilkins, 2018). However, even when teachers complete high-quality reading courses and practice their skills in school settings, research indicates that many continue to need additional training in addressing students’ behavioral needs during reading instruction (Feng et al., 2019; Livers et al., 2021).

Students who require intensive reading instruction may experience challenges related to engagement that need to be addressed directly for them to maximize learning during reading sessions. Research indicates that teachers of students with co-occurring reading and behavior difficulties may prioritize addressing behavior goals over and/or before intensive reading instruction (Lindström & Lemons, 2021). However, this approach de-contextualizes behavior support such that students may not generalize positive, engaged behaviors to an instructional setting and stands to delay much-needed reading intervention for students who urgently need it. Furthermore, research underlines the value of addressing these needs concurrently, such that students benefit from combined, embedded behavior supports in a reading intervention (Lemons et al., 2016; Roberts et al., 2021). By intentionally focusing on behavior supports in reading methods courses and providing training to pre-service teachers in combined behavior and reading interventions, teacher education faculty can increase the preparedness of teachers to make reading instruction more engaging and effective (Kuchle et al., 2015; Lemons et al., 2016).

This article presents a framework for teacher educators to address these principles throughout a reading methods course and accompanying fieldwork assignments. This framework includes recommendations to embed behavioral supports into reading intervention sessions for all students, as well as those who need additional support. Suggested activities, strategies, and a lesson plan framework for teaching these skills in a reading methods course are included. Using these tools, instructors can prepare teacher candidates to deliver evidence-based reading instruction and increase engagement to make instruction more effective and enjoyable. The following sections outline the importance of engagement for learning, describe principles of effective reading instruction that support engagement, and offer examples from research to support practice.

Engagement Matters

In a reading lesson, observable behaviors of engagement may include watching the teacher, appropriately utilizing instructional materials, responding to prompts from the instructor, and speaking in a way that contributes to learning (i.e., as compared with off-topic conversations) (Roberts et al., 2021; Wills et al., 2018). These behaviors are crucial to access instruction, accurately decode texts, process information, and make connections within the text (Macdonald et al., 2021). Research suggests that students who are less engaged during reading instruction tend to make less reading progress than those with higher levels of engagement (Macdonald et al., 2021). Together, these findings indicate that difficulties with engagement can have short-term and lasting effects on students’ reading development and therefore need to be addressed directly in teacher preparation programs.

Just as important as training teachers to provide evidence-based intensive reading instruction that draws on the science of reading is preparing them to do so in realistic, applied settings that take into account challenges such as disruptive behaviors and maintaining engagement. Pre-service teachers may benefit from guidance in applying evidence-based principles of positive behavior support and classroom management to reading intervention sessions, even when working with students individually or in small groups. And as with other principles of effective reading instruction, these behavioral strategies are most effective when used purposefully, consistently, and planned in advance (Brownell et al., 2019; Simonsen et al., 2015).

Setting Pre-Service Teachers Up for Success

In any reading methods course, pre-service teachers have varying experiences managing student behavior and often express concerns about how to keep students engaged with their instruction. Research indicates that early career and pre-service teachers who reflect on their instructional practices are more likely to demonstrate effective reading instruction and classroom management (Bishop et al., 2010). In reading methods courses, instructors can build a routine of reflection for pre-service teachers to think about their goals and initiate planning. When introducing the value of embedded engagement supports in reading interventions, teacher preparation faculty may prompt pre-service teachers to reflect on the following questions:

What do I want my reading lessons to look like?

How will I know when learning is happening?

How comfortable do I feel supporting students’ reading and behavior needs?

What school-wide systems and supports are already in place?

Has the student exhibited any behaviors that may require additional support?

Such a reflection activity may draw on case studies or field placements to illustrate how these concepts are applied in real-world situations. And extending these reflections into discussions may highlight for pre-service teachers the importance of operationalizing behaviors, setting clear expectations, and planning ahead to support students’ engagement during learning. Finally, the course instructor may decide to revisit these and other reflection questions throughout the term, as pre-service teachers gain more experience applying the skills from the course.

Meeting the Reading and Behavioral Needs of Students

Teacher educators play an integral role in training teachers to support students’ reading and engagement simultaneously. With careful planning of the reading methods curriculum, instructors can guide pre-service teachers to embed behavior supports in reading interventions, with the ultimate goal of maximizing student learning.

One way that teachers—and teacher preparation faculty—can conceptualize such a model is through adapting an evidence-based, validated reading curriculum with embedded supports to maximize engagement. Embedded behavior supports are a qualitative adaptation that can make reading instruction more effective and engaging. In contrast to quantitative adaptations to reading interventions that address how much intervention students receive, such as increased time and smaller group sizes, qualitative adaptations such as embedded supports intended to maximize engagement may be even more potent at increasing the effectiveness of a given intervention (Lemons et al., 2014). However, because qualitative adaptations involve adjusting instructional content (e.g., focusing on decoding digraphs) or delivery (e.g., adding picture supports to letter-sound correspondences) to align with student needs, they often require additional expertise and training on the part of teachers to be executed well. Dedicating time in a reading methods course to demonstrate these practices and allowing teacher candidates to practice them—ideally in an applied practicum or field placement setting—are necessary for developing these skills and using them with fluency and confidence (Brownell et al., 2019; Kirkpatrick et al., 2019; Myers, Sugai, et al., 2017). The following sections highlight some key principles that can be embedded into a validated reading program to maximize engagement, minimize disruptive behaviors, and increase overall effectiveness.

Supporting Engagement Through Direct Instruction

Direct instruction in reading, an approach defined by modeling, guided practice, independent practice, and systematic corrective feedback, provides a strong foundation for addressing students’ concurrent reading and behavioral needs. Most broadly, the structured routine and scaffolding of direct instruction (i.e., I do, we do, you do) can approximate errorless learning (Englert, 1984), which can help students experience success during a lesson and in turn increase their attention to the material. Furthermore, direct instruction relies on specific corrective feedback (e.g., “B says /b/, what sound?”) and behavior-specific praise (e.g., “I like how you’re using the punctuation to read this text smoothly”) so that students have a clear understanding of how to meet instructional objectives. These principles of direct instruction also prioritize students’ opportunities to respond, such that they are hearing or saying relevant information throughout a lesson and receiving multiple exposures to the letter-sound correspondences (Fitzgerald Leahy et al., 2019). Together, these practices have been linked with strong reading outcomes and increased engagement (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017; Sayeski & Brown, 2014; Simonsen et al., 2015).

Training Teachers to Promote Engagement During Instruction

For teacher candidates to use these principles in their reading interventions, it may be helpful to first explain the behavioral science behind them. Although it is not necessary for teachers to have expertise in advanced behavioral concepts, a familiarity with basic concepts such as positive behavior support and reinforcement can provide a useful framework for how embedded supports may facilitate engagement and learning. Ideally, these concepts would be introduced in other coursework (e.g., classroom management, positive behavior support), but a brief review in the reading methods course may provide helpful context and continuity. Once this foundation is set, then the instructor may introduce a selection of high-leverage practices and their contribution to an instructional environment that promotes engagement and learning. These adaptations are ideal for embedding into reading intervention, given their emphasis on prevention (rather than response), minimal resources and training required, and effectiveness in improving student behavior during individual and small-group reading instruction (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017; Roberts et al., 2021).

Drawing from this literature base, the following behavior support practices can be integrated into reading instruction for all students: (a) visual schedules, (b) providing clear expectations with precorrections, and (c) behavior-specific praise. For students who may need more support to maintain their engagement, the following practices are also described: (a) token economy and (b) self-regulation. With minimal training and coaching, all five of these practices can be implemented with high fidelity. Table 1 presents each practice with a brief description, rationale for its use, recommendation for how to use it in an applied setting, population for whom it is intended, and “pro tips” or suggestions for further increasing effectiveness. Each practice is described in additional detail in the sections ahead.

Table 1.

Behavior Support Practices.

Practice	What?	Why?	How?	Who?	Pro tip
Visual Schedule	Create a schedule for the entire day and for each lesson. Post visibly	Helps create structure and predictability in a classroom	Review the schedule at the start of each day. Have a separate schedule for each lesson	All students	Schedule changes can invite challenging behaviors. Give lots of reminders and point out any changes on the visual schedule
Posting Expectations	Create a chart with 3–5 expectations and examples of expected behaviors. Post visibly	Provides extra structure and a visual cue of classroom expectations	Teach expectations using explicit instruction and student modeling. Review and reinforce behaviors throughout the day	All students	Have students help create classroom expectations. Spend extra time reviewing expectations after long breaks, such as winter vacation
Behavior-Specific Praise	Praise students for appropriate behavior that just occurred	Gives positive adult attention to students and restates expectations for all to hear	Teacher says, “I liked how when the timer beeped, everyone had eyes on me!”	All students	Use language that identifies the behavior that just occurred and deliver praise as soon as possible
Self-Regulation	Students state goals, monitor goals, and reflect on their goals	Teaching students how to plan and monitor their behaviors supports engagement and active learning	Using a self-regulation form, students can create their own goals, monitor, and reflect on them	Students needing more support	Add more self-evaluation timepoints for more structure and remove self-evaluation timepoints for less structure
Token Economy	Positive reinforcement system. Students earn points or stickers and exchange them for prizes or activities	Used with behavior-specific praise, token economies can further incentivize appropriate behavior	Tokens can be delivered to individuals or a group. Rewards can be earned for the individual students or the group	Students needing more support	Pair tokens with behavior-specific praise. When teaching behaviors, deliver tokens frequently and provide opportunities to exchange tokens for rewards after every lesson

Visual Schedule

The use of visual schedules can enhance children’s positive engagement during reading routines by increasing the predictability of the reading routine (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017; Simonsen et al., 2015). Visual schedules can feature words, pictures, or other visual cues to support students’ understanding of expectations. Specifically for reading, visual schedules can incorporate all the components of a reading lesson such as word work, fluency, vocabulary, and passage reading, or they can be created to be broader to state the activities that occur before, during, and after the reading lesson. If reading lessons are a less preferred activity, marking off each component as it is completed can help to alleviate concerns related to when the lesson will end and when a reinforcer (e.g., such as a break) will be delivered. In a reading methods course, teacher candidates can customize the provided visual schedule in Figure 1 to reflect the needs of a hypothetical case study student or an assigned student from their fieldwork placement. This example visual schedule also incorporates other practices outlined in the sections ahead.

Figure 1.

Example of visual schedule.

Teaching and Posting Expectations

To support student behavior and promote active engagement during reading lessons, it is critical for teacher candidates to have a clear understanding of the behaviors that they expect from students during their reading instruction and how they plan to teach and reinforce these expectations (Alter & Haydon, 2017; Myers, Sugai, et al., 2017; Roberts et al., 2021). Therefore, prior to beginning to work with a student during reading lessons, a pre-service teacher can think about how they want to create their reading group routines through establishing three to five expectations such as “be respectful,” “follow directions the first time,” and “try your best.” To support student understanding, each of these expectations needs clear, observable, measurable, and positively worded behavior examples (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017). These examples can be created by the teacher or can be created as a class to promote student buy-in. When expectations and behavioral examples are established, they can then be posted in a visible location for the reading lesson.

As with teaching reading content (e.g., letter-sound correspondences) and skills (e.g., how to apply them to unfamiliar words), pre-service teachers are encouraged to also budget some instructional time to teach expectations using a lesson plan. This lesson plan would include an objective, definitions, rationale, and activities to teach and test the new skill (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017). Figure 2 provides a sample lesson to teach reading lesson expectations to a small group. In addition to teaching expectations, follow-up activities are needed to reinforce expectations, remind students of the expectations, and correct errors when they occur. Reinforcing expectations can be accomplished through behavior-specific praise and a token economy, which are discussed later in this article.

Figure 2.

Sample lesson plan for teaching expectations for reading intervention.

In addition, careful planning of expectations can be particularly useful during transitions or other times when challenging behaviors are most likely to occur (Myers, Freeman, et al., 2017; Sayeski & Brown, 2014). For example, teachers may tell students in advance how to apply decoding knowledge to read unfamiliar words or review with them how to take turns, prior to working with a partner. Finally, error corrections need to be quick to limit the adult attention and time away from the reading lesson and include the following steps: (a) restate or model the expectation and (b) provide behavior-specific praise for the appropriate behavior once it occurs. It is also worth noting that behaviors that require correcting might also need reteaching and reminders at a later time.

In a reading methods course, the instructor might present Figure 2 as a template with a few example expectations as a model for teacher candidates to customize for their needs. In particular, materials and activities should always be developmentally appropriate and reflective of group sizes. Pre-service teachers could then work in pairs or small groups to present their ideas for expectations that fit their instructional setting and students’ goals and give feedback to each other in a workshop-style activity.

Behavior-Specific Praise

Identifying and praising students for actively participating during reading instruction is a powerful reinforcer, in that it increases the likelihood of continued appropriate involvement in the lesson (Collier-Meek et al., 2019). Behavior-specific praise can also serve as a verbal cue or reminder of the expectation to both the student being praised and the other students in the group who hear the praise. When teachers deliver behavior-specific praise, as the name suggests, they specifically state the behavior with the praise, such as “Amazing work looking at each letter carefully,” or “Great job having your eyes on the speaker the whole time.” Teachers should try to avoid praising students more generally with standalone phrases such as “Good job” or “Nice work.” Such general phases miss the opportunity to restate the expectation and invite the potential for the praise to be associated with an incorrect behavior (Royer et al., 2019). In a reading methods course, the instructor might show a short video of a reading session in which general praise is used and have pre-service teachers identify opportunities where behavior-specific praise can be added and generate behavior-specific praise to fit those moments.

Students Who Need Additional Support

Some students may need more behavioral support in the classroom, beyond those just described, to maintain their engagement during reading instruction. For these students, more intensive supports can include teaching students how to self-regulate their behavior and the use of token economies (Chaffee et al., 2017; Reid et al., 2005). Both of these supports require some additional planning before the lesson, but research indicates that strategies can be implemented into reading instruction and improve student engagement during the lesson (Bruhn et al., 2016; Bruhn & Watt, 2012; Roberts et al., 2021).

Self-regulation

Research findings consistently link student self-regulation of their academic performance and behavior with improved outcomes in these areas (DuPaul et al., 2022; Reid et al., 2005). Teaching students to self-regulate requires instructing them in the cycle of creating their own goals, self-monitoring their goals, and reflecting on their goals to create new goals (Zimmerman, 2002). The first step in teaching students self-regulation is teaching them to create their own goals. These goals are best when positively worded and observable (Roberts et al., 2019). If the goals are more general expectations (e.g., possibly aligned to the classroom expectations), teachers must ensure that students can provide behavioral examples of each expectation. Examples of reading and behavior goals are to “sound out unknown words,” “reread passages when the meaning is unknown,” and “keep eyes on the speaker.” Second, during or after the lesson, students evaluate the extent to which they met their goals by marking on a self-regulation card with a smiley or sad face or a score of 0, 1, or 2, with higher scores indicating meeting or partially meeting a goal. Finally, at the conclusion of the lesson, students can graph their daily points or use their points toward a token economy, and reflect on areas of improvement for the next lesson.

Figure 3 provides a sample self-regulation form and example of a completed form. Teacher preparation faculty may provide the blank templates to pre-service teachers and invite them to customize depending on developmental level and other needs or interests of the student. As with other materials, pre-service teachers may then workshop their materials (i.e., take turns presenting and giving feedback) in pairs and offer suggestions for further enhancement.

Figure 3.

Sample completed self-regulation form and template.

Token economy

In addition to behavior-specific praise to reinforce appropriate student behavior, teachers can increase the value of the reinforcement by implementing a token economy. In token economies, students earn tokens, such as stickers, points, or smiley faces, that can be later exchanged for a tangible item or a desired activity (DuPaul et al., 2022). During a reading lesson, teachers can deliver tokens at set intervals (e.g., every 3 min) for appropriate behaviors or at the occurrence of appropriate behavior (Kim et al., 2021; Roberts et al., 2021; Wills et al., 2018). When the tokens are delivered, it is important to pair the delivery of the token with behavior-specific praise so that the student connects the reinforcement with the behavior. In a small group reading setting, rewards can be earned at the individual level, in which students earn rewards based on their own behavior, or at the group level based on the behavior of all or some of the students in the group (Simonsen et al., 2008).

Teachers may decide which version of a token economy to employ in their reading intervention sessions. These might range from a school’s existing formal token system (e.g., “Falcon Feathers” or “Brighton Bucks”) to a generic sticker sheet with specified rewards after earning a designated number of stickers. The bottom row of Figure 1 offers a simple example of a rocket-themed chart that can be filled with five stickers. Teacher preparation faculty may guide pre-service teachers to devise such a system based on students’ interests or school mascots and consider how schedules of reinforcement (e.g., how many stickers) align with students’ behaviors and needs. As with the other supports outlined in this article, token economies must be matched with students’ developmental level. Stickers may be more appealing for students in early grades, whereas middle school students may prefer earning points toward computer time.

Multi-Tiered Systems of Support

In many cases, pre-service teachers are working—or planning to work—in schools that adhere to principles of multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS). These systems are designed to address students’ academic and behavioral needs through response to intervention (RTI) and positive behavior intervention and supports (PBIS), respectively. These frameworks may provide valuable tools and language to ease the process of embedding behavior supports into reading intervention sessions. Whenever possible, pre-service teachers completing their fieldwork in a school with a PBIS framework are encouraged to draw from the existing structure to shape their decision making regarding behavioral supports during reading instruction.

In a reading methods course and fieldwork, teacher education faculty may direct teacher candidates to check in with their mentor teachers about school behavior norms, as an assignment for their class. They might collect information about existing school expectations, token economies, and other school- or class-wide methods that teachers use for promoting positive, engaged behaviors during learning. They might then reflect on where those practices would fit into a reading lesson and embed them into a sample reading lesson plan. By aligning with existing systems, pre-service teachers can foster continuity between classroom environments and intervention, and minimize unnecessary and time-consuming attempts to “reinvent the wheel.” If such systems are not already in place, pre-service teachers may benefit from planning exercises to develop these supports for their particular placement.

Addressing Behavioral Principles in Reading Methods Courses

As teacher preparation faculty work to support pre-service teachers in learning and implementing these practices into their instructional routines, they must plan to address these in class and fieldwork settings as well. For each of the tools described in the previous sections, teacher preparation faculty may lead the following activities or practices:

Assess the familiarity of pre-service teachers with each practice. Where have they seen these used before? How comfortable are they in using these practices?

Model using examples and non-examples. These may be videos, vignettes, and in the case of materials such as visual schedules, physical samples. Provide an array of examples that differ by age group and/or developmental level.

Facilitate practice and application by teacher candidates. Pre-service teachers may role-play with classmates, and if they have a fieldwork placement, use these strategies with K–Grade 12 students.

Encourage reflection. Teacher candidates may reflect on any resistance or challenges they faced, and how they might address these challenges. They could do this individually in writing and/or through collaborative discussion with classmates.

Include these principles in course expectations. If teacher candidates are required to submit lesson plans for the reading methods course, they would include the embedded behavior supports in their scripting, materials, and other lesson elements. If fieldwork involves observations of pre-service teachers implementing reading intervention, faculty would include these principles on a checklist with other expectations for the session.

Align with practicum. If there is a field placement requirement, sharing these expectations with the assigned mentor teacher or supervisor can help to ensure that they are further supported. Mentor teachers may provide contextual insights on students’ specific needs or school-wide behavior support systems that may be helpful for pre-service teachers adding these practices to their repertoire.

Figure 4 outlines these recommendations for quick reference and highlights the various settings to which these activities are best suited—in the reading methods course, in practicum settings, or bridging the two.

Figure 4.

Strategies for addressing behavior supports in a reading methods course.

Conclusion

Not all students who receive reading intervention also require behavioral supports to stay engaged. However, the practices presented in this article can be particularly effective for building rapport and preventing disruptive behaviors during reading intervention, especially when embedded in the instructional routine and used in combination with each other (see Brownell et al., 2019; Simonsen et al., 2015). Furthermore, they contribute to an organized and consistent instructional environment that can benefit both teachers and students. By presenting these practices in a reading methods course and applied fieldwork experiences, instructors can equip pre-service teachers to use these practices confidently and deliver more effective, evidence-based reading instruction.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R324B210020 to Lehigh University and Grant R324B190010 to the University of Denver. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.

ORCID iD

Esther R. Lindström

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