Student Outcomes of Eco-Restoration Service-Learning Experiences in Urban Woodlands

Abstract

Service learning with ecological restoration projects can positively affect participants’ attitudes, behaviors, and learning, but little is known about the longevity of these effects. Furthermore, urban green spaces are an understudied, yet increasingly important, context for eco-restoration service learning. This study examined the persistence of student outcomes of eco-restoration service-learning experiences in an urban woodland. Undergraduate courses from the Departments of Biology and Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies at Indiana University partnered with the Bloomington Urban Woodlands Project (BUWP) to restore native woodland habitat and conduct public outreach. Phenomenological analysis of student interviews demonstrated that service-learning experiences improved learning outcomes and encouraged and reinforced pro-environmental attitudes up to 14 months later. Results also demonstrate the applicability of an environmental interpretation behavior change model to college-level instruction.

Keywords

eco-restoration service-learning experiential education learning outcomes

Combining service learning, where students apply classroom instruction to serve community partner needs with ecological restoration (eco-restoration) can increase awareness and appreciation for the outdoors and the specific learning site and promote mastery of eco-restoration and conservation concepts and the associated skills to implement those concepts in real-world contexts (Purcell, Corbin, & Hans, 2007). However, although outcomes evaluated up to 2 months post experience have been studied extensively (Clary & Snyder, 1999; DiEnno & Thompson, 2013; Egan, Hjerpe, & Abrams, 2011; Grese, Kaplan, Ryan, & Buxton, 2000; Hall & Bauer-Armstrong, 2010; Leigh, 2005; Miles, Sullivan, & Kuo, 1998), few studies have addressed the persistence of such outcomes over the long term (2 months and beyond; Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011; MacFall, 2012). Furthermore, less attention has been paid to human dimensions of eco-restoration projects in urban areas, yet urban green space is increasingly viewed as significant green infrastructure that provides numerous vital services, the successful management of which demands civic engagement (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2012). This study helps to fill these gaps in the eco-restoration literature by examining outcomes of urban eco-restoration service-learning experiences from 4 to 14 months post experience.

Literature Review

Eco-Restoration

Eco-restoration projects seek to restore natural ecosystem functioning through human intervention (Clewell & Aronson, 2013); they range from local invasive species removal to restoration activities encompassing entire watersheds. Often, volunteers contribute to eco-restoration work, and the benefits of eco-restoration efforts are threefold: (a) the ecosystem is restored to a naturally functioning state, (b) the community benefits from securing ecosystem services through restoration (Barro & Dwyer, 2000), and (c) participants experience social, psychological, and educational benefits from performing the restoration work (Miles et al., 1998).

Eco-restoration also empowers individuals and communities (Barro & Dwyer, 2000), helps reconnect participants with nature through environmental socialization (Bixler & James, 2005), and supports the innate bond between humans and nature (Wilson, 1984). In fact, a conservation ethic can be created in a community by connecting participants with nature through eco-restoration experiences (Leigh, 2005). The development of social capital (Higgs, 2003), community resilience (Schroeder, 2000; Tidball & Stedman, 2013), economic benefits (Aronson et al., 2010), and improved aesthetics for outdoor activities (van Marwijk et al., 2012) are among other potential community benefits of eco-restoration projects. Benefits of eco-restoration projects for individuals include a sense of accomplishment through meaningful work, protecting the environment, learning, and meeting like-minded people (Grese et al., 2000; Miles et al., 1998). Other reported outcomes of participating in eco-restoration projects include spiritual renewal and happiness (Egan et al., 2011). Eco-restoration work can also positively influence environmental attitudes and ecological behavior intention (Bowler, Kaiser, & Hartig, 1999).

Service Learning

Many schools, from elementary level to 4-year colleges, offer service-learning experiences to complement classroom content with real-world experiences (Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). Recommended practices include having clear goals; strong connections between classroom content and fieldwork; giving students opportunities to plan, implement, and evaluate the experience; serving the community; and providing opportunities for reflection (Celio et al., 2011).

Several meta-analyses have been conducted on the outcomes of service-learning experiences. Participation in a service-learning experience was found to positively influence academic, personal, social, and citizenship outcomes, with the strongest influence being on academic performance (Conway, Amel, & Gerwien, 2009). In addition to improved academic performance, service-learning participants tend to experience improved attitudes toward self, school, and learning, as well as civic engagement and social skill improvements (Celio et al., 2011; Eyler, Giles, Stenson, & Gray, 2001). Other positive outcomes of service learning include stronger problem-solving skills, enhanced personal development (including personal efficacy, personal identity, spiritual growth, and moral development) and interpersonal development (including working well with others and communication skills), increased leadership skills, greater cultural awareness, and tolerance (Eyler et al., 2001).

Although some of the studies reported in these meta-analyses were longitudinal in nature, many of the studies evaluated outcomes immediately following the experience (Celio et al., 2011; Conway et al., 2009). The persistence of outcomes over time has not often been evaluated. When it has, the results have been promising. For example, MacFall (2012) queried students up to 8 years after completing an environmental studies senior capstone course, and revealed that service learning increased alumni’s environmental stewardship, civic responsibility, teamwork ability, and transition from academic to professional worlds. Respondents agreed that the service-learning course improved their ability to communicate with environmental professionals, to develop problem-solving skills, and to appreciate the importance of working with community partners to address complex environmental issues (MacFall, 2012). Although these results are encouraging, data on long-term outcomes of service learning remain too sparse to confirm the generality of these outcomes.

Eco-Restoration Service Learning

Eco-restoration projects can provide educational opportunities via service learning (Purcell et al., 2007). Students can develop and improve problem-solving skills by designing and completing eco-restoration projects (Purcell et al., 2007). These skills allow students to work productively in groups with interdisciplinary members including other students, community, non-profit, and government groups to improve understanding of ecological issues (Purcell et al., 2007). Kondolf, Mozingo, Kullmann, McBride, and Anderson (2013) studied a project-based college class that developed a master plan for local stream restoration. Results indicated the experience gave students a sense of real-world accomplishment, an opportunity to apply knowledge of broader issues to a specific individual site, and the ability to work together in teams to increase learning. In an assessment of outcomes 3 months after place-based, residential environmental learning projects, Stern, Powell, and Ardoin (2008) found that participants reported an increased awareness of biodiversity and environmental stewardship.

Urban Contexts for Eco-Restoration Service Learning

More than 50% of the world’s people reside in urban areas, and in North America this percentage is 82% (United Nations, 2014). These percentages have grown dramatically in recent decades and are projected to continue growing rapidly (United Nations, 2014). As a result, more and more people are experiencing nature primarily in urban or suburban green spaces (Dunn, Gavin, Sanchez, & Solomon, 2006). Urban woodlands and other green spaces provide a variety of ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, pollination, food production, water purification, soil stabilization, and landscape aesthetic benefits (Fisher, Turner, & Morling, 2009), that are increasingly recognized as critical supplements to gray infrastructure as population and resource demand grows. Continued loss of natural areas to urban and suburban development heightens the importance of eco-restoration in securing the ecosystem services on which people depend (Lee, 2005). Scholars suggest that individuals who have direct experiences in and with nature are more likely to develop an appreciation for natural resources (Bixler & James, 2005), and are thus more likely to act in a manner that embodies a conservation ethic (Dunn et al., 2006). Consequently, researchers hypothesize that negative environmental behaviors and subsequent losses in biodiversity can be attributed in part to the lack of contact between people and nature (Miller, 2006; Pyle, 1978, 1993). Eco-restoration projects in urban areas represent an important opportunity for urban residents to engage in caring for urban green spaces (Dunn et al., 2006; Rosenzweig, 2003; Turner, Nakamura, & Dinetti, 2004). The literature demonstrates that service-learning and eco-restoration projects can lead to important positive outcomes for participants. Underrepresented in this literature is whether the outcomes of such service-learning experiences for participants in urban areas persist over time. The present study examines the impacts of eco-restoration service-learning classes in urban woodlands at the university level up to 14 months after completion of the course.

Applicability of a Behavioral Change Model From the Field of Environmental Education

The field of environmental education has developed models to guide professionals in developing educational programs that lead to behavioral changes (Hungerford & Volk, 1990; Knapp, Volk, & Hungerford, 1997; Stapp et al., 1969). In particular, Knapp et al.’s (1997) model of environmental interpretation identifies three categories of goals that can be applied in a sequential manner to achieve behavior change among participants of environmental interpretation programs. Entry-level goals include information awareness, understanding of the site, site policy awareness, and environmental sensitivity. Ownership goals emphasize awareness, investigation, and evaluation of resource site issues and related environmental problems. Empowerment goals include the promotion of responsible environmental actions. Although the service-learning experiences under study in this article were not intentionally designed in accordance with Knapp et al.’s (1997) work, compelling parallels exist and are explained in the “Method” and “Discussion” sections.

Method

Service-Learning Partner and Study Sites

The Bloomington Urban Woodlands Project (BUWP) is a coalition between university, municipal, and conservation non-profits with the goal of restoring the biodiversity and health of urban woodlands and reconnecting people to nature (Bloomington Urban Woodlands Project, 2013). Operating on a small budget with few staff, the BUWP greatly depends on student service-learners and volunteers to carry out project activities. BUWP currently works in two 10-acre woodlands close to city residential and commercial areas: Dunn’s Woods, in the historic center of Indiana University’s Bloomington campus, and Latimer Woods, approximately 2.5 km east. The primary ecological issue in both woodlands is invasive plant species that threaten the forest’s native diversity, the most serious of which is Euonymus fortunei (Purple Wintercreeper).

Service learning can take the form of direct service (assistance with routine project activities) or project-based service (development of special projects requiring more focused, creative work; Schonemann, Libby, & King, 2010). Direct service with BUWP involved hand removing invasive species and planting native woodland wildflowers during hourly work sessions led by BUWP staff. Project-based service with BUWP involved development of outreach materials, including natural and cultural history content for a web-based mobile-guided tour of the woodland, and signage and brochures on native versus invasive plants to be displayed at a local landscape nursery.

For both direct and project-based service-learning students, class lessons provided background on the ecological and economic impacts of invasive species; the connections between native plants, biodiversity, and ecological services; and restoration methods, corresponding with Knapp et al.’s (1997) entry-level goals of information awareness and understanding of the site. On-site service-learning experiences then allowed students to put knowledge into action through activities such as identifying plants, digging up invasive species, or planting native species, consistent with Knapp et al.’s (1997) goals of developing a sense of ownership of a site and its issues and empowering responsible environmental actions. Finally, assignments such as reflections and outreach projects also promoted Knapp et al.’s (1997) empowerment goals, either by encouraging students to make connections between course and service-learning “texts” and their sense of agency and responsibility as members of society, or by extending the reach of their work through development of educational materials for various audiences. Ideally, after completing the service learning, students became knowledgeable about the woods, felt a sense of ownership for the site and its issues, and were empowered to promote actions that help to protect environmental integrity. The extent to which these goals were achieved is addressed in the “Discussion” section.

Participant Recruitment, Data Collection, and Analysis Methods

Participants in this study were Indiana University (IU) students who engaged in direct and/or project-based service learning with BUWP during the 2012-2013 or 2013-2014 school years. We used a convenience sampling approach to secure potential interviewees (Riddick & Russell, 2008). Participants were recruited from one of three Biology classes (two undergraduate, one graduate) and one Recreation, Park and Tourism Studies (RPTS) undergraduate class, through email solicitations sent via the university’s internal course web forum (Oncourse). A total of 12 students elected to partake in the research (Riddick & Russell, 2008) and were interviewed about their experience.

Telephone interviews were scheduled via email and conducted from November 2013 to April 2014. Interviews lasted 13 to 27 min, were recorded, and followed a semi-structured format (Bernard, 2006), where students were asked the same set of core questions but responses were explored further with probing questions by the interviewer. The interview began by asking respondents to describe their woodland experiences. Next, students were asked to share their service-learning expectations and accomplishments, describe interactions with classmates, and assess whether the service learning influenced their opinions on what should be done about invasive species or native restoration. Additional questions related to the amount of time spent in the woods, environmental attitudes and perceptions, and related classwork.

To determine what characterized the experience and which memories were salient, interview data were subjected to phenomenological analysis (Farmer, Knapp, & Benton, 2007; Van Manen, 1990). Phenomenological analysis examines experiences to elucidate the similarities and variations across a group of participants in a manner that allows for the emergence of themes from the collective data set, and has been successfully applied to experiential education programs with as few as five respondents (Field, Lauzon, & Meldrum, 2015).

Initially, data were coded into like concepts, terms, and phrases, then into distinct categories using an open-coding exercise, which extracts words and phrases from the original transcript and places them into categories of like words (Creswell, 2006; Moustakas, 1994). Next, the coded words or phrases were rechecked within the context of the original transcript by a second researcher (Baker, Thompson, & Engelken, 2004; Goldenberg, McAvory, & Klenosky, 2005) and then analyzed to determine emergent themes. The emergent themes and associated phrases were then compared with the original transcriptions to confirm that they correctly represented ideas in their original contexts. Finally, to strengthen the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings, the principal investigator and another researcher cross-checked the delineated data to confirm and reach final consensus on the thematic categories for words and phrases (Farmer, Knapp, Meretsky, Chancellor, & Fischer, 2011). When discrepancies were found between the placements of the data into divergent themes, the researchers negotiated the best placement of the data until consensus was reached (Farmer et al., 2007; Goldenberg, Klenosky, O’Leary, & Templin, 2000).

Results

Six primary themes emerged from the phenomenological analysis: (a) learning outcomes, (b) real-world impact, (c) teamwork, (d) appreciation and awareness, (e) a sense of ownership of the place and its issues, and (f) the role of the project leader.

Learning Outcomes

All 12 students discussed learning outcomes, with 65 separate mentions of what students learned from their eco-restoration service-learning experiences in the interview transcripts. Most (n = 9, 75%) specifically highlighted the importance of place-based experiential learning to illustrate classroom content and increase their learning. This theme was expressed by comments such as “. . . integrating our studying in with the actual environment that we live in. It was pretty rewarding” (BUWP1, 11 months post). Another student described how the sensory experience created a superior learning environment to traditional classroom experiences:

. . . it’s that positive experience and you have that memory, that active memory of the smells, the sounds, the feeling in walking and hearing leaves. It sticks with you a lot more than if you’re reading about it in a book. (BUWP2, 6 months post)

Nine students (75%) also described learning about invasive species. For example, one student reported,

Dunn’s Woods definitely sort of gave you a hands-on feel for the effects of invasive species, non-native invasive species . . . getting a better idea of what is actually going on in our woods even so close to the campus. (BUWP5, 14 months post)

Another student reported that learning how invasive species removal could restore biodiversity “. . . was rewarding because you see how taking care of and managing it we can turn the tide” (BUWP1, 11 months post).

Real-World Impact

All 12 students reported that they felt the work they did was important because it made a real-world impact. This theme was mentioned 30 times in total. Respondents identified three types of impacts: stewardship of the urban woodlands (n = 9), creating an educational product (n = 5), and serving the community (n = 4). One student recognized that stewardship of urban woodlands on the local level could have larger cumulative effects.

So by planting these native plants we’re providing lots of habitat for birds and butterflies, both migrant and local to live which cascades up the food web. It also conditions the soil to make it better for other plants, native plants to come in . . . [if] everyone’s sort of protecting what they have locally that makes a global impact. So even by focusing on what seems like two small urban woodlands in a town that has only 110,000 people, it’s still making a difference. It’s still important. (BUWP4, 6 months post)

Another student described the rewarding experience of creating an educational product for the community, saying,

I really like the idea that something that I helped to create will hopefully be out there for the public to be able to take advantage of. I think that makes me feel pretty accomplished . . . Just having my hand on a project that’s real and doesn’t disappear after the class semester ends. It feels definitely more important than just a paper you write that a teacher slaps a grade on. Working on something that actually exists in real life was pretty cool. (BUWP12, 4 months post)

Appreciation and Awareness

All 12 students also reported a greater appreciation for, and awareness of, the importance of local urban woodlands, with 28 mentions of this theme across all interviews. Students expressed increased awareness of and appreciation for a wide variety of components of the urban woodlands including the history of Dunn’s Woods, the ecological issues effecting urban woodlands, the presence of biodiversity, and the aesthetic benefits. One student stated simply, “I definitely value those smaller pockets of natural areas more after this class” (BUWP8, 4 months post). Students also reported an increased awareness of the issues impacting local urban woodlands. As one student put it, “. . . the big thing is I became a little better aware, better informed about the issues . . . being able to talk about them with a little more knowledge and actually understand things a little bit better” (BUWP5, 14 months post).

Sense of Ownership of the Place and Its Issues

More than simply increasing appreciation and awareness of the importance of local urban woodlands, student interviews reflected a sense of ownership, with 11 of the 12 respondents (92%) discussing this theme in 26 instances. Students reported an intention to stay involved and share their knowledge and experiences with others. For example, some students joined the BUWP volunteer email list and others continued working with the instructor on their service-learning project after the semester ended. One student discussed how he has continued to spread the word about the importance of the project in the intervening months, saying that service learning is a way to

. . . keep everyone active on campus to make the invasive species disappear and have an eco-friendly environment . . . I wish more people on campus would know about invasive species . . . one way it has influenced me is to just tell others about what I experienced doing the service-learning and why I was doing it. So, spreading the word. (BUWP6, 14 months)

By explaining why they wished to stay involved and why they are actively encouraging others to do so as well, students demonstrated a sense of ownership of these local urban woodlands and a desire to see them protected.

Teamwork

Nine students (75%) discussed the positive influence group work had on their service-learning experience, referring to teamwork in 28 instances. Specifically, students discussed how working together toward a common goal brought classmates together in an enjoyable learning atmosphere. They reported that engaging with other students outside class allowed for friendly interaction, collaboration, and cooperation that made for a more productive project. For example, one student described how working together both increased learning and allowed for personal growth, saying, “I think because it was a collaborative project we just grew together by working together” (BUWP11, 4 months post). Likewise, another student described how

It’s nice to know that students and especially I had a part in it just because it was a team effort. We were all working together towards this big goal of raising awareness about Dunn’s Woods, raising a positive awareness about Dunn’s Woods. (BUWP10, 4 months post)

The Role of the Project Leader

Finally, whether it was the course instructor, service-learning supervisor, or workday group leader, the role of the person in charge was important in creating a positive experience. Eight students (67%) explained on 12 occasions how this leadership positively influenced the service-learning experience. Project leaders were praised not only for their expertise but for serving as a catalyst for learning, bringing out the best in people and engaging students with the resource and content to make it enjoyable. For example, this student reported feeling motivated by the passion of their course instructor, describing him as

. . . someone who is really good at engulfing people in his motivation and so it was really cool to see how involved [he] wanted to be in this whole process and through his involvement and passion it was evident that the class kind of, we got more out of it I think than someone who didn’t have an instructor like [him]. (BUWP7, 4 months post)

Discussion

Our exploration of student outcomes of eco-restoration service-learning experiences in urban woodlands contributes to the literature in four ways. First, most studies of participant outcomes in eco-restoration service-learning projects have focused in rural areas. Our findings confirm that important learning and pro-environmental outcomes can also come from eco-restoration service-learning experiences in urban areas. Human dimensions of eco-restoration projects in urban areas have been understudied but are important because in an increasingly urbanized world, citizens tend to interact with elements of the natural world only within their urban environments. Such interaction could include seeing urban wildlife species such as squirrels, raccoons, and birds; keeping or visiting gardens or community orchards; or spending time in and working at small woodlands identifying plants, removing invasive species, and planting native species as did the students in this study. People who have these types of direct experiences with nature are more likely to act in environmentally conscious ways (Dunn et al., 2006), and eco-restoration work has been shown to positively influence environmental attitudes and ecological behavior intention (Bowler et al., 1999; Egan et al., 2011). Consistent with these behavioral dynamics, students in our study reported their intentions to take pro-environmental action and remain involved with woodland restoration efforts. Importantly, these outcomes were achieved not by traveling from an urban area to a natural area to conduct the service learning but were achieved by having the experience in a natural area within the urban environment.

Second, these findings demonstrate that this eco-restoration service-learning experience resulted in outcomes that persisted over time and had lasting positive impacts on participants, including knowledge of course content and affective qualities such as appreciation. Although lasting impacts have been assessed in outdoor experiential learning programs (Gass, Garvey, & Sugerman, 2003), they are not common in the eco-restoration service-learning literature. Furthermore, when eco-restoration service-learning experiences have been studied in the context of outdoor experiential learning programs, the focus has tended to be on students in the K-12 grade levels. For example, Stern and colleagues (2008) found that 3 months after participating in a residential environmental education program, participants maintained awareness of the place and a sense of environmental stewardship. Farmer and colleagues (2007) showed that 1 year after an environmental education field trip, fourth-grade students appeared to develop a pro-environmental attitude that was connected to their experience at Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

Third, our study demonstrates that college students, a group underrepresented in the literature, experience lasting outcomes from eco-restoration service learning. The college students in our study demonstrated retention of both content and affective outcomes 4 to 14 months after service-learning experiences by self-reporting a greater sense of the issues affecting urban woodlands and a greater appreciation, awareness of, and sense of ownership for local urban woodlands.

Finally, our results support the efficacy of Knapp et al.’s (1997) Environmental Interpretation Behavior-Change Model. Although not explicitly designed with this model in mind, the eco-restoration service-learning experiences we studied tended to be structured according to the model’s entry-level, ownership, and empowerment goals. Likewise, student outcomes, represented by the six themes that emerged from our phenomenological analysis, matched with the goals of the behavior change model. Entry-level goals were embodied in respondents’ reported learning (Theme 1) and appreciation and awareness of the study site (Theme 5). Ownership goals were represented in respondents’ engagement in the service-learning experience on site, including students’ inspiration by the project leader (Theme 4) to work together to address the issues impacting the site (Theme 3, teamwork). Finally, empowerment goals were achieved when students reported they made a real-world impact (Theme 2) and had stayed involved with the project after their class ended and shared their knowledge and experiences with others (Theme 6).

Limitations

Because this study was concerned with the durability of outcomes over time, participant recruitment occurred months after the conclusion of the service-learning experience. Longer times since completion of service learning might be expected to decrease recruitment success, and indeed we found it difficult to recruit a large sample of participants. One reason for this may have been that many students graduated from IU in the intervening months, and even though their email addresses were still active in the university system, the students were no longer responding to messages sent to those addresses. A second reason may simply be the relative ease of ignoring “cold call” email solicitations, especially when these are in reference to past events that must compete with a multitude of immediate demands. In addition, respondents self-selected to reply to the “cold call” emails and participate in the study. Given the length of time between service-learning experience and recruitment, it is possible that those who had a memorable experience leading to positive long-term outcomes were more likely to respond.

The phone call mode of participant interviews is another limitation of our study, and in-person interviews would likely improve the depth of data. Because participants ultimately came from different classes, their experiences also varied. Experiences varied by the nature of the service learning (direct vs. project based), type of activities (research, graphic design, writing, delivering presentations vs. restoration work), and length of time spent in the woods. Consequently, students with different experiences may have had different lasting impacts. For example, it is possible those who spent more time or made more frequent visits to the woods would have greater recall of lessons learned there or that physical hands-on activities would be more memorable than completing related research on the woodlands in an academic setting. The impact of the nature of service learning and time spent on site are important areas for future research. Nevertheless, all respondents in our study spent significant time learning about eco-restoration and applying classroom content in the field by regularly visiting the woodlands during a semester-long service-learning experience. The themes that emerged from our qualitative analysis were broad enough to cover the similarities across experiences but specific enough to offer direct feedback on elements of service learning that lead to long-term positive outcomes.

Finally, any references in our results to increases in knowledge, awareness, or appreciation are based on self-report. Likewise, specific changes in behavior were not measured beyond what respondents reported about continued involvement and spreading the word about their experiences. Collection of baseline data, immediate post-experience data, and long-term post-experience data would strengthen measurements of the short- and long-term impacts of nature-based service-learning experiences in urban settings.

Conclusion

This study added to the literature on eco-restoration service learning by exploring the durability of outcomes for college-level programs in urban woodlands. Furthermore, results demonstrate applicability of Knapp et al.’s environmental interpretation behavior change model to eco-restoration service-learning experiences.

Student responses indicated that positive outcomes were retained up to 14 months after the learning experience. Positive outcomes included the accomplishment of what could be considered entry-level goals in Knapp et al.’s (1997) terminology such as learning and appreciation and awareness of the study site. Ownership goals were achieved through investigating the woodlands and its issues firsthand, where the project leader played an important role in facilitating teamwork. Finally, and most importantly, empowerment goals were achieved, as students described a sense of real-world impact, were inspired to continue their involvement with the project even after the semester concluded, and continued to spread the word about the important issues they learned. Important ways to build on these findings are inclusion of pre- and post-tests to more objectively quantify the outcomes of eco-restoration service-learning experiences, and investigation of the separate and interactive effects of direct versus project-based service learning, to extend analysis of the most influential characteristics of service-learning experiences.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. Peggy Schultz, Indiana University, Biology Department; Brian Forist, Indiana University, Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies; the Bloomington Urban Woodlands Project staff and volunteers; and student participants.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This project was supported by an Indiana University Office of Sustainability Research Development Grant and by Audubon’s Toyota TogetherGreen Innovation Grants Program (grant numbers 063352-00001A and 063352-00002B).

Author Biographies

Eric Knackmuhs is a visiting Lecturer in the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies at Indiana University’s School of Public Health - Bloomington. He researches communication of controversial issues as they pertain to parks, recreation, and leisure sites including public policies, natural resource management, and social issues.

James Farmer is an Assistant Professor of Human Ecology in the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies at Indiana University’s School of Public Health - Bloomington. His research focuses on sustainable behavior and decision-making with two primary sectors: natural resource sustainability and sustainable food systems.

Heather L. Reynolds is an Associate Professor of Biology at Indiana University. She researches plant-environment interactions and their applications to restoration, promotion of green cities, and sustainable agriculture. Her teaching employs service learning to engage students at the interface of science and society.

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