Abstract
A global approach to education aims to increase students’ effectiveness in an increasingly globalized world, helping them engage with the community, learn perspective-taking skills, gain awareness of global issues, and build relationships at home and abroad (Association of American Colleges and Universities [AACU], 2014). As college students consider meeting globally focused institutional requirements, they may feel pressured to participate in education abroad programs. Although study abroad is a high-impact educational experience, educators propose that it is merely one option that could facilitate global learning (Sobania & Braskamp, 2009) and that students’ readiness, interest, and ability to participate should be considered (Manning, Frieders, & Bikos, 2019).
It is within this conversation that local learning may be considered as an alternative. Providing students the opportunity to interact with cultures differing from their own can facilitate skills in communication and a change in perspectives (Kitsantas, 2004). By shifting the focus from international location (e.g., study abroad) to experience (e.g., new ideas, cultures, perspectives), global learning may occur locally at lower cost and greater access (Sobania, 2015).
Transformational learning is one theory of adult learning through which the process of changing perspectives can be understood, dovetailing experiential education’s focus on “challenge and experience, followed by reflection, leading to learning and growth” (Association for Experiential Education, n.d.). Specifically, service learning allows students to combine learning skills from experiential education programs with addressing marginalized communities’ needs (Liu & Lin, 2017). Through engaging in activities that fundamentally challenge the learner’s frames of reference and assumptions, the learner can begin to adopt newer, broader perspectives (Mezirow, 2006). The experiential component is crucial, as it encourages learners to consider new and potentially uncomfortable perspectives and to assimilate those experiences into their frames of reference. Transformational learning can occur across a variety of settings and is useful in studying how service learning affects individuals in community settings (Kiely, 2005). Our project was motivated by curiosity regarding the capacity of a community-based experiential education program to contribute to global learning. This article presents the results of a qualitative evaluation of students’ perspectives on personal outcomes related to participating in a community-based Community Kitchen (CK) at their local university. We first describe global learning and review research related to achieving global learning outcomes (GLOs) via the transformational learning that may occur in experiential education.
Developing GLOs Through Transformational Learning
Defining GLOs
GLOs seek to expand awareness with a focus on global issues, blending global engagement, social responsibility, and diversity (AACU, 2014). GLOs may assess global competence, consistent with an increasing emphasis within education on preparing students to succeed within a globalized world, one characterized by increased interconnectedness and social exchange transcending national borders (Steger, 2013). “Global competence” continues to be named and defined differently across disciplines (Orazbayeva, 2016); however, core components include understanding world issues and developing relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to approach systemic world problems. This process is conceptualized as an individual and collective transformation that ultimately allows students to act to address social issues (Orazbayeva, 2016).
GLOs include global self-awareness, perspective-taking, cultural diversity, personal and social responsibility, understanding global systems, and applying knowledge to contemporary global contexts (AACU, 2014). GLOs facilitate engaging alternative perspectives, increasing cultural diversity experiences, and instilling a sense of responsibility for addressing global issues. Perspective-taking often requires individuals to alter their frames of reference when faced with conflicting information. Cultural diversity refers to individuals utilizing multiple worldviews when communicating with people from other backgrounds to create a solution. After a global learning experience, individuals may better understand global systems, such as those that contribute to food insecurity and community nutrition, and how they interact to affect their world. Individuals can then apply their knowledge and understanding of new perspectives to create a solution for global problems.
Cultivating Knowledge and Transformational Learning Through Experiential Education
Transformational learning is the process by which people transform their general frames of reference, sets of assumptions, and expectations in response to experiencing information that challenges these frames of reference (Mezirow, 2006). From this perspective, contradictory information creates dissonance as it is not easily assimilated into an individual’s existing frames of reference. Dissonance initiates a process of reflection upon current frames of reference to accommodate this new information (Kiely, 2005), resulting in changed frames of reference that can be more inclusive, evaluative, and open.
Important outcomes for educational programs are frequently classified into the categories of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs). Together, KSAs comprise competence, which is important for functioning adequately within the context of career (Baartman & de Bruijn, 2011). The type of integration required for the attitudinal development component of KSAs is transformative integration, which can be understood through Mezirow’s (2006) theory of transformational learning. Transformational learning can facilitate change in the attitudinal component of KSAs, which, when combined with knowledge and relevant skill practice, aids in an iterative process of developing competence (Baartman & de Bruijn).
Although the development of KSAs is thought to increase competence, including workplace (Baartman & de Bruijn, 2011) and intercultural (Taylor, 1994) competence, transformational learning is associated with increasing self-confidence in changed roles or relationships, increased feelings of personal power, feelings of spiritual growth, increased compassion, increased creativity, new relationships and connections, and changes in discourse (Taylor, 1997). Within the context of service-based activities, individuals may feel more empowered to act in a socially responsible manner and be self-directed and less dependent on false assumptions (Kiely, 2005).
Research on conditions that facilitate transformational learning is limited and primarily theoretical, but conditions that may foster this process within group educational settings have been identified. First, an affective component is needed to initiate the sense of dissonance that leads to reflection (Kiely, 2005; Larsen, 2017). Engaging with others in a shared experiential context, such as via a curriculum addressing social or value-laden problems, can present individuals with affectively and intellectually dissonant information (Taylor, 2000). Second, experiencing dissonant information can result in a sense of alienation and disorientation, which prompts some to seek out opportunities for group reflection (Mezirow, 1991; Taylor, 2000). However, because reflection can involve embarrassment, discomfort, or feelings of insecurity, educators are encouraged to create an environment where individuals feel secure in engaging in honest, potentially conflicting, and undirected group dialogue and critical reflection leading to changed frames of reference (Moore, 2005). This dialogue may play an important part in reflection and contribute to shared connections with fellow community members in a service-based educational context (Asghar & Rowe, 2017; Kiely, 2005). Below we describe three conditions that have been found to facilitate transformational learning.
Fostering transformational learning by connecting with others
By working in groups, individuals develop emotional intelligence. Specifically, productive collaboration can facilitate empathy and interpersonal emotional awareness (Manring, 2012). In cooperative learning environments, individuals work together on a task and solve problems simultaneously, improving performance because of the need for effective communication and problem-solving (Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, & Kirschner, 2006). This collaborative teamwork can also increase perceived effectiveness and future engagement with group members (Van den Bossche et al., 2006).
Engaging with and learning from the community
Dik, Duffy, and Eldridge (2009) assert that people who work for a perceived common good may find meaning and gain an empathetic perspective. Moreover, connecting with the local community is cited by many as the most important part of their jobs and may guard against burnout (Dik et al., 2009; Manring, 2012). Working alongside people experiencing challenging life conditions may alter one’s perception of their own circumstances, heighten awareness of systemic issues relating to vulnerable populations, and foster a sense of moral obligation (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011; Mezirow, 2006). Regarding experiential education, Asghar and Rowe (2017) suggest that service learning is a form of experiential education that prepares students to become socially and personally responsible and helps students gain awareness of social justice issues. They propose that engaging with community members is imperative for a “socially just” service-learning experience.
Facilitating transformational learning through environmental conditions
For transformational learning in educational settings, an engaging environment seems foundational (Taylor, 2000). An engaging environment is marked by a warm atmosphere, supportive of open discussion, and exploration. Furthermore, an affective component in which experiences and emotions are shared is essential for transformational learning to take place, both within a classroom setting and a community-based environment (Manley, Buffa, Dube, & Reed, 2006). Such experiences may occur while interacting and serving community members facing challenges such as food insecurity or low socioeconomic status.
Investigating GLO Through Community-Based Experiential Education
In light of the outcomes engendered by transformational learning, we propose that experiential education can equip students with GLOs. Our study evaluated how one type of experiential education, a local university-based CK program, may foster GLOs in students through a process of transformational learning. CKs are held internationally and nationally and have demonstrated impact on nutrition education, budgeting skills, and social connection (Iacovou, Pattieson, Truby, & Palermo, 2013; Murray et al., 2014). Most research has focused on outcomes for community members participating in CK programs, and while this is important, virtually nothing is known about outcomes from the perspective of student participants.
Method
Using qualitative methods, we explored students’ perceived outcomes following participation in a CK at an urban liberal arts Christian university. The CK is designed to meet several goals: (a) allow students an avenue to explore vocational paths; (b) hone knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) that are attained through real-life experience with practical, rather than academic, applications; and (c) serve the community (Baartman & de Bruijn, 2011). The CK program, sponsored by the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, is held monthly during the academic year, from October through June. Community members commit to attendance on a month-by-month basis, pay a per-visit fee to cover cost of ingredients, and may take home additional meals following participation. Attendees span a wide range of ages, cultural backgrounds and ethnicities, and socioeconomic statuses.
Student participants cook meals collaboratively with underserved community populations while applying real-life food preparation and planning skills, including purchasing ingredients. The student team meets weekly to discuss ongoing work, including community outreach and menu planning, with leaders meeting more frequently for longer-term planning.
Data Collection
For 5 years, the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences collected data annually from student participants, posing two open-ended questions on SurveyMonkey regarding their CK experiences:
In what ways has the CK allowed you to explore, understand, and/or practice Christian vocation in general, or your personal calling, in particular?
In what ways have you benefited from your volunteer involvement in the CK?
Acknowledging the archival nature of the data, the institutional review board (IRB) coordinator at Seattle Pacific University waived the need for formal review. Data were deidentified at collection; therefore, no demographic information on our sample is available.
Participants
Thirty-five student responses were utilized for this qualitative study. Because demographic information was not available, university-wide demographics inform us that the 69% of the student body identifies as female, 41% identifies as first-generation college students, 38% identifies as an ethnic minority, and the mean age of enrolled undergraduate students is 21 years (Seattle Pacific University, 2016, 2017). In addition, most students who participated in the CK program majored in food and nutrition (dietetics) and were female.
Data Analyses
We employed Hill’s (2012) consensual qualitative research-modified (CQR-M) method to analyze our short-form response data. Our sample of 35 students and the short-answer format indicated the use of CQR-M rather than traditional CQR, which utilizes semistructured interviews with fewer students. CQR-M is a qualitative research method based on grounded theory. Data analysis includes confronting researchers’ biases and expectations that emerge during the process. A benefit of using CQR-M is that it can be used to study “little-studied phenomena” (Spangler, Liu, & Hill, 2012, p. 271).
The analytic process began by examining the data and identifying domains (and subsequently categories) into which the data could be coded. Once the category structure was identified, members independently coded the data, regrouping at frequent intervals to argue to consensus the assignment of the data. Once we were satisfied with the category structure and assignment of units of data, an auditor provided feedback on the coding scheme, domains, and categories, and minor adjustments were made.
Trustworthiness
We employed several techniques to increase the trustworthiness of our work. Before beginning data analysis, research members discussed our biases and assumptions; the insights gained from this conversation continued to be referred to and checked throughout the process of analysis (Hill, 2012; Spangler et al., 2012). Because we did not directly interact with the students, we focused on reducing indirect impact and bias through arguing to consensus and utilizing an auditor at each step of the process. Consistent with grounded theory, we did not hold a priori hypotheses regarding the domains or categories that would emerge. However, we informed our discussion by seeking to balance this exploratory modeling approach with theoretical knowledge of GLO and transformational learning after the category structure had been created. The auditor helped to confirm that the data were reflected in the domains and categories rather than the reverse. At several points in the process, results were shared with CK program stakeholders.
Results
Emerging Domains
Our final model included seven domains, 11 categories, and six subcategories. We present the domains from highest to lowest frequency in Table 1. As is customary with CQR-M, a frequency of students’ responses (raw counts) is provided. The seven emerging domains included impacting knowledge and skills, changing attitude through transformational learning, contributing to personal benefit, facilitating relational connections, influencing vocational identity, engaging with the community, and providing a unique experience.
Frequency Table of Qualitative Data.
Impacting knowledge and skills (48)
The largest domain, affecting knowledge and skills, is composed of two subcategories: facilitating skills (40) and acquiring knowledge (8). This domain highlights how the CK facilitated academic understanding and learning of tangible skills. The CK also provided an opportunity to teach this knowledge and facilitated an approach that increased competency.
Facilitating skills (40)
Three subcategories described students obtaining and strengthening both hard and soft skills: developing practical skills (20), social skills (15), and teaching skills (5). Solidifying practical skills, such as skill in cooking, nutrient analysis, and planning and promotion of nutritional meals, was described. One student stated, “[The CK] has taught me many skills. . . planning meals, building relationships with local organizations, and scaling recipes.” Students voiced strengthening communication and relationally oriented skills such as delegating tasks and instructing others. One student said, “I developed leadership skills by managing participants.” Another stated, “Working in the CK has improved my ability to relate to people of all different backgrounds and ages.” Students additionally endorsed becoming better teachers through participation in the CK, which provided a platform to share their academic understanding or practical skills with others.
Acquiring knowledge (8)
Through direct observation and hands-on learning, students developed an academic understanding or awareness of issues relating to community food insecurity. One student stated that The CK has allowed me to not only practice principles that I am learning in the classroom, but also see the importance of what I am learning. . . this experience has given me future ideas for how to involve the community in food and healthy eating.
In addition, students gained more awareness of community resources that how those resources affect nutrition and how nutrition affects the community. One student noted, “I have expanded my knowledge and awareness of the importance of community nutrition in both personal and societal well-being.”
Changing attitudes through transformational learning (37)
Consistent with Mezirow’s (2006) model, the CK facilitated a process of change by which students reflected upon previously held frames of reference. This process occurred through conflict of past beliefs with novel experiences, resulting in a new reflective and open frame of reference shown in the subcategories of reflecting (29) and acting (8).
Reflecting (29)
Mezirow (2006) defines reflecting as “reflecting critically on the source, nature, and consequences of relevant assumptions—our own and those of others” (p. 94). In our sample, this reflection was personal in nature. Students described how the CK exposed them to the community’s diversity and limited resources. For example, “. . . it was apparent that people [community members] do not want to be treated differently because of their economic status, but rather similar wants and needs as we all do.” Some students connected such changes in their thinking with the opportunity to interact in a way with which they were not initially comfortable. One student mentioned that “The CK challenged my comfort zone in certain ways, by opening me up to unconditional service and sharing of my gifts in the kitchen.”
Acting (8)
Mezirow (2006) defines action as “taking action on our transformed perspective—we make a decision and live what we have come to believe until we encounter new evidence, argument or a perspective that renders this orientation problematic and requires reassessment” (p. 94). The CK inspired students to act on their new frames of references; several described this experience as influencing them to use their strengths to help others and themselves. One student stated, “It inspired me to get to know people at a deeper level and ask them about their lives and speak encouragement into their lives.” Some explained how they used newly gained skills from the CK to further benefit community members. One student stated, “If we can influence one participant’s diet, this can in turn influence the food they serve their family and friends.” Another student voiced, “I became involved in a community dinner at my own church because I loved Community Kitchen so much.”
Contributing to personal benefit (28)
Students suggested that involvement with the CK allowed them to apply and grow their beliefs, values, and gifts, resulting in a sense of maturity and personal growth. Within this domain, two categories emerged: practicing values (21) and influencing self-growth (7).
Practicing values (21)
Students discussed acting on their values and beliefs through the CK experience. This resulted in three subcategories: applying faith, applying personal interests, and providing a service. Some students suggested that the CK gave them the opportunity to apply their religious beliefs. Different aspects of faith were acknowledged, including feeling God’s grace and love or being charitable, and strengthening their faith. One stated, “Being able to live out God’s calling for Christians was a definite growing experience for my faith.” Students described applying personal or professional interests within the CK context, with one student voicing that this experience was “something that is satisfying to both the body and soul.” Another stated that “As dietetic students, there is no better way to share our passion about food and nutrition than to cook with community members and influence the way they approach food.” The subcategory of providing a service captured students’ experiences acting on their values and serving a diverse group of community members. Likely due to the context of the Christian university, this concept of service was usually described in a religious context.
Influencing self-growth (7)
Students expressed that community members helped students gain confidence in their skills throughout the CK experience.
Facilitating relational connections (27)
The CK provided a platform for community members and students to build relationships (20) that were new or important and fostered reciprocal (7) relationships, in which they perceived mutual gain from relationships.
Building relationships (20)
Students expressed that the CK allowed them to spend time with people they would not have otherwise encountered, many from backgrounds different from their own. One shared, “Building relationships with fellow students and participants was a wonderful experience.” Students explained that these relationships were created because they spent time together, worked with each other, and grew and matured together.
Fostering reciprocal relationships (7)
Students voiced experiencing reciprocal benefit from the CK; as community members benefited from the CK, team members learned and gained from community members. One respondent stated, “I find myself telling people about the program and what a benefit it is to our. . . community, but I know it has hugely benefited me as well.” This included emotional benefits, such as support and enjoyment of others, and practical benefits of learning from one another’s knowledge.
Influencing vocational identity (22)
Students described how tasks and experiences within the CK program prepared, solidified, and/or gave voice to their future career. Three subcategories emerged that encapsulated various aspects of career and calling: increased vocational identity (9), contributed to career preparation (8), and facilitated calling exploration (5).
Increased vocational identity (9)
Many students described that participating in the CK gave them more confidence in their career choice and strengthened their vocational identity as they envisioned themselves as community-based nutritionists or opening a CK in the future. One student explained, “the CK is probably one of the biggest reasons why I’ve decided to pursue a career in community-based nutrition education. . . this opportunity has solidified my desire to work professionally in this area.”
Contributed to career preparation (8)
Students voiced gaining professional skills that directly prepared them for future careers, especially within the fields of dietetics and nutrition. They shared that this experience allowed them to better understand logistics management and planning, experiences they saw likely benefiting them in their careers.
Facilitated calling exploration (5)
Students expressed that the CK fostered a sense of purposefulness, which resulted in exploring, and in some cases, perceiving they had found their personal or professional calling. One student voiced, “it taught me to look deep within myself for my true calling.” Another stated, “It has allowed me to explore what I might enjoy in a career, while fostering my desire to continue to work with low-income populations.” For others, the CK reinforced students’ calling for education, nutrition, service, and cooking. A few students explained that their call was directly related to helping others in the community, showing others the power of nutrition, and strengthening their relationship with God.
Engaging with the community (14)
Students acknowledged that they could directly engage with the broader community around the university through the CK. Students voiced the involvement with the broader community, both on- and off-campus as an integral part of the CK, and pointed to the CK as facilitating this experience. One student reported, “We are truly living out [university’s] vision and mission of engaging the culture outside of our campus and changing the lives of those we touch.”
Providing a unique experience (7)
Students described how the CK provided a unique atmosphere and opportunity for the CK team. One student recalled, “I would have never gotten to [apply my interests] had I not been a part of the kitchen.” The “perfect atmosphere” of the CK (i.e., “warm,” “hospitable,” and “like home”) was credited with fostering learning while serving others.
Discussion
As society becomes increasingly diverse, the importance of students obtaining global competence to function effectively both personally and vocationally also grows (Hunter, White, & Godbey, 2006). To facilitate development of these competencies, many undergraduate educational institutions have begun to focus on implementing GLOs into the curriculum (Hunter et al., 2006). Our results suggest that experiential learning opportunities such as CKs provide an avenue for students to realize these outcomes without the need to travel far from home. Furthermore, results of our study provide an example of how global learning can be realized through local engagement and how conditions for this process of transformational learning can be facilitated through experiential education.
Aligning Domains With GLO
Table 2 shows the emerging qualitative domains aligning with GLOs. Regarding the domain of knowledge and skills, students described gains in many areas, including knowledge about food insecurity in the United States and how they interact with community and individual needs; this knowledge aligns with the GLO of learning about global systems (AACU, 2014). In addition, students described gaining the skills necessary to prepare nutritious food within the limited budget common in low-resource communities.
Mapping Emerging Domains Onto GLOs.
Note. GLOs = global learning outcomes.
Students also described experiencing attitudinal change consistent with Mezirow’s (2006) theory of transformational learning. For instance, students conveyed an increased sense of awareness regarding food systems within the local community, their impact on community members’ lives, and students’ roles in addressing systemic problems. This attitudinal change supports the reflection phase of transformational learning (Mezirow) and fosters the GLO of global self-awareness, in which people become more aware of their place within a broader context of community and culture. In addition, some students described acting in accordance with this new attitude by interacting with and serving community members outside of the CK; this is consistent with the action phase of transformational learning, and again parallels the GLO of knowledge application (AACU, 2014).
Students shared that participation in the CK fostered relational connections among themselves and other individuals and within the community. Specifically, students described how they learned and benefited from these relations and their engagement with the community. Exposure to potentially unfamiliar or uncomfortable ideas, such as disparity within the community regarding access to food, was present within the CK context. This environment provided students and community members an opportunity to collaborate with people with whom they may not have otherwise interacted, a prerequisite for the next GLO, perspective-taking.
Perspective-taking was engaged when students learned more about perceptions of food from off-campus neighbors. These interactions likely facilitated the increase in knowledge and skills noted by students, as well as presenting perspectives on which to reflect (Kitchenham, 2008). Consistent with the action phase of transformational learning theory, participants described continued engagement with the broader community after CK participation that allowed continued engagement with issues surrounding local food systems. This supports the notion that working within the community can change one’s perception of their life circumstances and increase awareness of vulnerable populations and their needs (Manring, 2012). Framed in terms of GLOs, these participant responses demonstrate an outcome of an increased sense of personal and social responsibility.
Finally, student responses suggest that the CK environment was integral to facilitating this process of realizing GLOs through transformational learning. The described environment, included in Table 1 as “Providing a Unique Experience,” was consistent with the facilitative conditions noted in the literature (Taylor, 2000) for transformational learning in educational settings. These conditions include a warm atmosphere, supportive of open discussion and exploration, which occurred in collaborating with lower-income members of the community with less food security. In addition, for the students to fully engage with the community, they needed to gain familiarity and knowledge of the community members and be in an environment that fosters such engagement (Manley et al., 2006). Together, this research suggests that educators may be able to produce the participant outcomes observed in our study by producing these global context conditions, which may additionally facilitate GLOs and, by extension, increased global competence through local engagement.
Limitations and Future Directions
This qualitative study represents an initial step in exploring how campus-based experiential learning programs aimed at enhancing engagement with the local community may foster GLOs. However, it also includes limitations that future research can address.
Our study used archival data from the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences based on responses to only two open questions; therefore, our analysis was limited in detail and scope. One consequence of using archival data is the inability to ascertain baseline levels of knowledge or skill, although skill and knowledge acquisition were endorsed by participants; this limitation may be addressed in future research by specifically assessing degree of knowledge on these subjects pre- and postparticipation.
This study focused on outcomes from a campus-based program that includes community engagement within the context of a Christian university. More research is needed to evaluate the impact of other types of community engagement and contexts that may facilitate GLOs. Specifying these facilitative conditions would allow schools to purposefully foster global learning through experiential programs, possibly increasing numbers of students graduating with the global competence necessary for effective functioning in an increasingly diverse and interconnected workplace and community (Hunter et al., 2006).
This qualitative study represents an early exploration into how global learning may be facilitated in campus-based community engagement programs. Combining quantitative and qualitative research methods to more specifically evaluate outcomes may help clarify the relation between participation in experiential programs and GLOs. Future data collection could include participant-observation, longer semistructured interviews, and demographic information to enrich findings and support generalizability. Finally, future research should explore how observed GLOs in students facilitate culturally sensitive outcomes, personally and vocationally, for students following graduation.
Summary of Conclusions
Founded in experiential education, the CK provided transformational learning experiences that facilitated global learning for students. Our focus was on the potential of CK programs to foster GLOs. Past research also indicated the possibility of additional outcomes, including shared learning and increased perceived effectiveness stemming from the teamwork inherent in the program, and increased empathy and awareness of others stemming from the community engagement aspect (Dik et al., 2009; Manring, 2012; Van den Bossche et al., 2006). We found similar outcomes in our study, suggesting that experiential learning may be a viable avenue by which global learning may be realized.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.