Abstract
Each year, more than 14 million children and adult camps are frequently organized in the United States. Camps hire more than 1.5 million staff to facilitate the experiences of campers (American Camp Association [ACA], 2017a). The ACA has shown the tangible value of the camp experience for children and adolescents, including improved peer relationships and social skills, increased self-esteem, and better decision-making processes (ACA, 2017b; Thurber, Scanlin, Scheuler, & Henderson, 2007). Wilderness therapy and outdoor behavioral health care programs have reported comparable results relating to enhanced well-being (Gass, Gillis, & Russell, 2012). In addition, the camp experience can be especially beneficial for women, as they have reported the skills gained at camp augment their social, career, and personal development (Whittington, Garst, Gagnon, & Baughman, 2017).
Integral to the camp process are the camp counselors who facilitate the activities and learning experiences of campers (Russell & Phillips-Miller, 2002). The general demographics of camp counselors tend to be below the age of 30 years, single or in a relationship, White, and completing or have recently completed a college degree (Marchand, Russell, & Cross, 2009). The varied roles of camp counselors necessitate that they work for an intensive period with individuals ranging in age from 5 to 18 years old.
Compassion satisfaction and burnout, an aspect of compassion fatigue (e.g., Ledoux, 2015), are a well-studied phenomenon in the helping professions (e.g., nurses, social workers, teachers, mental health professionals). Compassion satisfaction is the gratification an individual may derive from helping and contributing to the greater good of others (Stamm, 2005). Burnout is related to feelings of hopelessness, inadequacy, and the challenges encountered by helping others (Stamm, 2005). Burnout has implications for well-being, interpersonal relationships, and lower client satisfaction (Smart et al., 2014). In Stamm’s (2005) review, no differences appeared between gender and age on measures of burnout and compassion satisfaction, suggesting that women and men of all ages have similar experiences in their role as helpers.
While burnout can take form from the intensive nature of camp sessions and constant contact with campers, compassion satisfaction is also possible. For example, over the course of a summer camp, counselors have previously reported low levels of personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion (Wahl-Alexander, Richards, & Washburn, 2017). Field instructors of outdoor behavioral health care programs indicated that difficulties surfaced in their roles as a result of feeling pressure to perform, having to make relational and career compromises for their work, receiving insufficient remuneration, and feeling anxious and exhausted (Marchand et al., 2009). Yet, these same individuals also reported that their role allowed for personal growth and provided an opportunity to make a positive impact on campers’ lives, which is in line with compassion satisfaction. Hence, the camp counselor experience has the potential for both burnout (Bailey, Kang, & Kuiper, 2012) and satisfaction (Whitacre & Farmer, 2013).
To date, extant research on camp counselors has included mostly cross-sectional analyses, pre- and posttests, and qualitative studies of role-specific stressors and challenges. However, based on what is known about the effects of compassion satisfaction over time, it is salient to examine the ways to potentially augment compassion satisfaction as to improve the experience of camp counselors. As a result, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of self-compassion, self-care activities, stress management, values-driven behavior, and burnout on camp counselor compassion satisfaction over a 10-week period.
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping
The transactional model of stress and coping provides a framework for understanding the short- and long-term effects of stress through cognitive appraisals, coping ability, and personal factors, and how this process affects an individual’s quality of life and mental health (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The model begins with causal antecedents that are classified as either person- or environment-centered. Person-centered factors include goals, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world, which are evidenced by the meaning ascribed to stressful events (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In this study, values and self-compassion are two forms of person-centered factors examined. For example, individuals are more likely to engage in positive health behaviors and show a decrease in mental health issues when they exhibit values-congruent actions (Levin, Haeger, Pierce, & Twohig, 2017). The opposite is also true, such that when an individual experiences values obstruction, they engage in behaviors that keep them stuck. Smout, Davies, Burns, and Christie (2014) define values progress as a “. . . clear awareness of what is personally important and perseverance” (p. 166), whereas values obstruction is “. . . the disruption of valued living due to avoidance of unwanted experience and distraction from values by inattention to values or attention to other psychological experiences” (p. 166). Self-compassion, which is the ability to view and treat oneself with compassion, positively contributes to mental health and life satisfaction, and allows for a kinder appraisal of oneself in stressful situations (Neff, 2016).
Environmental factors include situational demands, external resources, challenges, and circumstances out of one’s control (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The combination of person- and environment-centered causal antecedents creates a person–environment relationship. Both elapsed time and engagement in stressful situations serve as mediating processes, which result in appraisals of stress and the development of coping strategies. Stressful situations take shape through both daily hassles and major life events (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). As this occurs, the effects of stress, whether distress or eustress, begin to appear and include any positive or negative thoughts and physiological changes in the short-term, along with changes in physical and mental health, well-being, and social functioning in the long-term (Lazarus, 1999).
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the effects of self-care activities, self-compassion, stress, values progress, values obstruction, and burnout on compassion satisfaction among camp counselors.
Method
Permission was received from the institutional review board of Kansas State University and the camp’s staff to conduct the study. Information was provided to the camp counselors before the first session of camp began via email and in person. All potential risks and benefits were outlined as well as that participation was voluntary. The first author then invited camp counselors to take part in the study. A link to a Qualtrics survey was emailed to 168 camp counselors with more detailed information and the informed consent. Camp counselors who consented to participate in the study were then directed to the survey.
Participants
Participants were 27 camp counselors from an all-female summer camp. All participants were women and averaged 20.33 years of age (SD = 2.35, Range = 18-29). There were 11 first-year students, five sophomores, four juniors, three seniors, three graduate students, and one noncollege attending participant. The majority of participants identified as White (n = 25) while one each as Black and multiracial. More than half (n = 15) were first-time camp counselors, and 19 had previously attended summer camp. Approximately one in five were department heads during the summer, meaning that in addition to their camp counselor roles, they were also responsible for overseeing other staff and the daily oversight of camper activates. In addition, 60% indicated previously having been a camper at this specific camp or another summer camp.
Camp Structure
To work at camp, the following criteria had to be met: (a) identify as a female, (b) identify as a member of a specific religious group, (c) be willing to work at least one camp session, and (d) adhere to camp policies about behavior and standards of practice. Prior to the first session of camp, camp counselors were provided 5 days of training related to managing difficult situations, working with children of various ages, how to best care for themselves during the sessions, and proper responses to emergency situations. Each week, camp counselors attended a 2-hr weekly meeting led by camp staff to address any ongoing issues and to receive feedback.
Three camp sessions were run consecutively for a 10-week period. The first camp session ran for 3 weeks, the second session for 5 weeks, and the third session for 2 weeks. Camp counselors were allowed 1 day off during the first session of camp, 3 days off during the second session, and 1 day off during the last session of camp. These data were collected at four different time points: the beginning (T1) and end of each camp sessions that were 3 weeks (T2), 5 weeks (T3), and 2 weeks (T4) in length of time. All participants served as camp counselors for all three camp sessions. Each camp session consisted of 500 to 550 campers ranging in age from 7 to 18 years old. Campers only attended one of the three camp sessions, meaning camp counselors had to familiarize themselves with a new group of campers each session. Campers participated in activities led by camp counselors that occurred 6 days a week, seven periods a day, for 45 min each period. Camp counselors were assigned a cabin consisting of 10 to 12 campers, meaning they were also responsible for the emotional and physical well-being of campers in addition to leading daily activities.
Measures
Aside from self-compassion that was measured only once at T1 (pretest), all other measures were administered at four time points, T1 to T4. Self-compassion was only measured at T1 due to it being a character trait unlikely to vary much over the study’s duration of 10 weeks. All reported measure reliability coefficients are for each respective measure in this study.
Compassion satisfaction
The 30-item Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL-5; Stamm, 2005) includes 10 items that assess compassion satisfaction. The ProQOL Scale is commonly used among the helping professions and allows for profession-specific terminology to be included within the items to reflect unique work contexts. Item were measured along a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging 1 = never to 5 = very often. Example statements include “I get satisfaction from being able to help people,” and “I am happy that I chose to do this work.” Total scores reflect levels of compassion satisfaction: 22 or less for low levels, 23 to 41 for average levels, and 42 and more for high levels. The scale’s reliability for this sample was good (α = .83).
Burnout
The ProQOL (Stamm, 2005) also includes 10 items that measure burnout. Using the same 5-point Likert-type scale as mentioned above, participants rated statements such as “I feel worn out because of my work as a camp counselor,” and “I feel ‘bogged down’ by the system.” Total scores reflect levels of burnout: 22 or less for low burnout, 23 to 41 for average burnout, and 42 and more for high burnout. The scale’s reliability for this sample was acceptable (α = .74).
Stress
The ability to manage stress was assessed using the corresponding stress subscale of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) that consists of seven items. Example statements include “I found it hard to wind down,” and “I found it difficult to relax.” Items were measured along a 4-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 0 = did not apply to me at all to 3 = applied to me most of the time. Scores were calculated by obtaining a total score for the seven items and then multiplying by two with higher scores reflecting more difficulty managing stress. The scale’s reliability for this sample was good (α = .81).
Self-care activities
Broad categories of self-care activities were identified from the literature. These categories included physical exercise (e.g., running, swimming), restorative practices (e.g., yoga, stretching), personal time (e.g., prayer, reading), group time (e.g., time with other counselors in a nonwork-related context), and contact with family and friends outside camp. Participants were asked whether they engaged in any of these on a weekly basis (yes or no), and if they did participate in a category, how often (e.g., 1-2 days, 3-4 days, or 5-7 days). A “yes” response was coded a 1, and multiplied by the frequency response (i.e., 1 = 1-2 days, 2 = 3-4 days, and 3 = 5-7 days). Higher scores reflect engagement in a greater number and frequency of self-care activities over the course of a week.
Self-compassion
The Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003, 2016) measures the ability to view and treat oneself with compassion. The measure is a valid and theoretically sound way to assess self-compassion (Neff, 2016). The scale comprises 26 items using a 5-point Likert-type-scale ranging from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always, and contains six subscales: (a) self-kindness, (b) self-judgment, (c) common humanity, (d) isolation, (e) mindfulness, and (f) over-identification. Negative subscale (i.e., self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification) items were reverse coded. A mean score was generated using all items. Higher mean scores reflect higher levels of self-compassion. The scale’s reliability for this sample was good (α = .94).
Values progress and values obstruction
The Values Questionnaire (Smout et al., 2014) was used to measure valued living, an important component of how an individual decides to engage with their environment through behaviors that are reflective of their values. The scale is a 10-item, two-factor measure of the propensity to live out values that either advance or obstruct goal-directed behaviors. A 7-point Likert-type-scale was used to rate responses ranging from 0 = not at all true to 6 = completely true. Example items for values progress include “I worked towards my goals even if I didn’t feel motivated to,” and “I continued to get better at being the kind of person I want to be.” Example items for values obstruction include “I was basically on ‘auto-pilot’ most of the time,” and “Difficult thoughts, feelings, or memories got in the way of what I really wanted to do.” The scales’ reliability for this sample was acceptable for values progress (α = .74) and good for values obstruction (α = .81).
Control variables
Control variables accounted for additional responsibilities taken on by camp counselors (i.e., whether or not participants were a department head [0 = no, 1 = yes]), and their familiarity with the summer camp experience (i.e., whether or not a participant had previously attended this or a similar camp [0 = no, 1 = yes]).
Data Analysis
Bayesian analysis, the process of fitting a probabilistic model to a set of data, was used to test H0 and H1. The two primary benefits of Bayesian analyses are that it allows for examination of smaller samples (Lee & Song, 2004) and reduces the likelihood of misinterpretation or exaggeration of the results (Wagenmakers, Wetzels, Borsboom, & van der Maas, 2011). Model selection consists of calculating probability of the data given the model for a given number of models and selecting the model with highest marginal likelihood. Commonly, two models are compared by computing the Bayes’s factor (BF), which is the ratio of the evidences for the two competing models.
A series of Bayesian linear regressions were conducted using SPSS v.25 (IBM Corporation, 2018) to examine the effects of the predictor variables on the dependent variable of compassion satisfaction and to identify the model that best fit the data. In all the evaluated models, time was included as a factor, and being a department head along with previous experience at a summer camp were included as control variables. A total of seven models were generated, with each model being built iteratively beginning with time followed by the addition of one independent variable at a time (i.e., burnout, self-care activities, stress, values progress, values obstruction, and self-compassion) to examine the contribution of each independent variable based on the incremental amount of the BF. The larger the BF, the more informative the model.
To determine the order of the predictor variables being entered into the model, each predictor was analyzed independently in a Bayesian linear regression that included compassion satisfaction as a dependent variable, time as a factor, and being a department head along with previous experience at a summer camp included as control variables. Each independent variable was assessed primarily for its BF, with a larger BF indicating greater explanatory power of compassion satisfaction. Predictor variables were then included in the model sequentially based on BF value from highest to lowest.
Bayesian analysis allows priors to be specified, which yields a BF with desired theoretical properties. However, because a BF is the relative probability of occurrence derived from data, it may be interpreted without prior odds (Rouder & Morey, 2012). Hence, inferential statements depended only on the assumed model and the available data, and the prior distribution that is used to make an inference is the least informative (Zellner & Siow, 1980). The reported unstandardized betas can be interpreted as follows: An increase/decrease in a unit of predictor variable results in an increase/decrease from the posterior mean of the outcome variable.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics of each study variable are presented in Table 1. Omnibus tests using ANOVAs were conducted to examine differences within variables across time and to account for potential Type I errors. Analyses revealed no significant differences within variables across time, thus suggesting homogeneity of these data.
Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables from Time 1 to Time 4.
Results of bivariate correlations are presented in Table 2. Results indicated a significant relationship between the compassion satisfaction and all the independent variables. Compassion satisfaction was negatively associated with burnout (r = –.60, p < .001), stress (r = –.22, p < .05), and values obstruction (r = –.45, p < .001), and positively associated with self-compassion (r = .44, p < .001), self-care activities (r = .38, p < .001), and values progress (r = .50, p < .001).
BF Inference on Correlations.
Note. BF = Bayes’s factor.
BF10 > 10. **BF10 > 30. ***BF10 > 100.
Bayesian Linear Regression
Results from the independent Bayesian analyses of predictor variables (presented in Table 3) revealed that burnout produced the highest BF (2,327). This meant that burnout had the highest explanatory power of compassion satisfaction and as such was entered into the model first. This was followed by self-care activities (BF = 1,087), stress (BF = 197), values progress (BF = 165), values obstruction (BF = 117), and self-compassion (BF = 15).
BFs to Determine Order of Inclusion of IVs Into Bayesian Linear Regression.
Note. Time was included as a factor. Covariates were being a department head and previous experience at a summer camp. Dependent variable = compassion satisfaction; IV = independent variable; BF = Bayes’s factor; PM = posterior mean; VA = variance; CRI = credible interval.
Results are presented in Table 4. Results of Model 1 (BF = 234) indicate that by including time as a predictor, time alone is more likely to account for compassion satisfaction than a model without any predictors. For interpretation of time, T4 serves as the reference timepoint; hence, T1, T2, and T3 are interpreted in relation to T4. For instance, T1’s value of 1.67 in Model 1 (Table 3) means that compassion satisfaction at T1 was 1.67 units higher than at T4. T2’s value of 0.89 means that compassion satisfaction was 0.89 units higher than at T4, and T3’s value of −0.67 means that compassion satisfaction at T3 was 0.67 units lower than at T4. These results indicate that compassion satisfaction fluctuated over the 10-week period, specifically with a decrease from T1 to T3 and then increasing again at T4, and that time alone explained 10% of a camp counselor’s compassion satisfaction.
Bayesian Estimates of Coefficients for Models 1 to 7.
Note. Dependent variable = compassion satisfaction; PM = posterior mean; VA = variance; CRI = credible interval; BO = burnout; SCA = self-care activities; STR = stress; VP = values progress; VO = values obstruction; SC = self-compassion; BF = Bayes’s factor.
In Model 2 (BF = 2,327), when including both time and burnout as predictors, we can account for these data roughly 2,327 times better than a model with no predictors, and that time and burnout together explained 39% of compassion satisfaction. Furthermore, we can be 95% confident that the true value of compassion satisfaction is reduced by between −0.74 and −0.43 (M = −0.58) when there is a one-unit increase in burnout.
Results of Model 3 (BF = 4,435) indicate that by including time, burnout, and stress as predictors, we can account for these data roughly 4,435 times better than a model with no predictors, and these three predictors accounted for 43% of compassion satisfaction. Furthermore, we can be 95% confident that the true value of compassion satisfaction decreases by between −0.69 and −0.38 (M = −0.53) for each one-unit increase in burnout, and increases by between 0.17 and 0.71 (M = 0.44) for each one-unit increase in self-care activities.
Results of Model 4 (BF = 6,111) indicate that with time, burnout, self-care activities, and stress as predictors, we can account for these data roughly 6,111 times better than a model with no predictors, and that these factors explained 46% of compassion satisfaction. Furthermore, we can be 95% confident that the true value of compassion satisfaction decreases by between −0.88 and −0.48 (M = −0.67) for each unit increase in burnout, increases by between 0.10 and 0.65 (M = 0.38) for each unit increase in self-care activities, and increases by between 0.01 and 0.26 (M = 0.14) for each unit increase in stress.
Results of Model 5 (BF = 4,644) indicate that by including time, burnout, self-care activities, stress, and values progress as predictors, we can account for these data roughly 4,644 times better than a model with no predictors. This model, however, was weaker than Model 4 (BF = 6,111). Results of Model 6 (BF = 3,428) suggest that by including time, burnout, self-care activities, stress, values progress, and values obstruction as predictors, we can account for these data roughly 3,428 times better than a model with no predictor variables. However, this model was again weaker than Model 4 (BF = 6,111) and Model 5 (BF = 3,428). Results of Model 7 suggested that by including all the predictors, we can account for the data roughly 1,240 times better than a model with no predictors. Again, this model was weaker than Model 4 (BF = 6,111), Model 5 (BF = 4,644), and Model 6 (BF = 3,428).
These data are best accounted for by Model 4 (BF = 6,111). The predictors of time, burnout, self-care activities, and stress progressively increased the BF, which was evidenced by the model improving with the addition of each predictor. The addition of values progress, values obstruction, and self-compassion reduced the BF, indicating that the inclusion of these predictor variables to the model did not add enough explanatory power to overcome the natural Bayesian penalties for increasing model complexity. Based on a comparison of the BF for each model, Model 4 was the simplest explanation of these data and accounted for 46% (SE = 3.44) of compassion satisfaction. The results of Model 4 rejected H0 and partially supported H1, whereby compassion satisfaction was negatively related to only burnout and positively related to self-care activities; however, contrary to H1, stress was positively related to compassion satisfaction.
Graphs charting the priors and posteriors of the predictor variables from Model 4 are presented in Figure 1. The prior graphs reflect a uniform distribution of values, whereby equal weight is assigned to every value on the x axis (Zellner & Siow, 1980). The posterior graphs reflect the probability of experiencing compassion satisfaction given camp counselors’ reports of burnout (A), stress (B), and use of self-care activities (C). Every unit of burnout experienced by camp counselors corresponded to between −0.88 and −0.48 (M = −0.67) units of compassion satisfaction. Each unit of stress experienced corresponded to between 0.01 and 0.26 (M = 0.14) units of compassion satisfaction. Each unit of self-care activity that camp counselors engage in corresponded to between 0.10 and 0.65 (M = 0.38) units of compassion satisfaction.
Prior and posterior distributions of burnout, stress, and self-care activities.
Discussion
The intense nature of the camp experience and the unique role of camp counselors who are responsible for not only engaging campers in activities, but also must be physically and emotionally available to provide socioemotional support to campers can be a rewarding experience for camp counselors and campers alike. To better understand the experience of camp counselor compassion satisfaction, this study examined the direct effects of person-centered factors on compassion satisfaction. Results suggested that three person-centered factors produced the most parsimonious model predicting compassion satisfaction. A camp counselor’s regular, consistent engagement in self-care activities and management of stress contributed positively to compassion satisfaction, while the experience of burnout negatively affected their compassion satisfaction.
A focal point of the burnout literature places an emphasis on personal stress management techniques (e.g., self-care activities, physical activity, sleep, etc.) that can serve as preventive measures and a buffer against burnout-related symptoms. The salience of self-care activities and stress management techniques both fit within the transactional model of stress and coping, specifically as each are reflective of healthy coping responses to stressors that serve to enhance an individual’s well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Wahl-Alexander and colleagues (2017) highlighted the role of stress management techniques and resilience in addressing camp counselor burnout, such that each can be a buffer against the negative effects burnout while also augmenting a camp counselor’s feelings of personal accomplishment. Chang (2009) noted that the combination of providing socioemotional investment to students and experiencing daily stressors is also common to teachers in K-12 settings. When teachers utilized avoidance-type coping strategies, what Chang (2009) identified as a “suppression of emotion or disengagement from stressful situations” (p. 210) in the midst of stressors, they were more likely to experience burnout; however, when teachers used regaining-task-focused strategies that allowed for reexamination of the situation as well as importance appraisals that reoriented an individual to their larger goal, they were capable of working through stressors more effectively.
Another important implication for camp counselors’ experience of burnout, and possible reduction in compassion satisfaction, is that while burnout manifests at the individual level, it can also be the result of broader systemic issues. The burnout subscale of the ProQOL-5 (Stamm, 2005) includes items such as “I feel overwhelmed because my workload seems endless,” and “I feel ‘bogged down’ by the system.” These statements highlight the importance and contributions of systemic processes and resource mismanagement that may contribute to burnout. For example, one meta-analysis of burnout has noted that job demands, a lack of resources, and organizational attitudes are all predictors of burnout (Alarcon, 2011). In addition, staffing-related issues such as interpersonal conflict among work colleagues, supervision and management difficulties, and inadequate equipment all have been shown to contribute to burnout (Khamisa, Oldenburg, Peltzer, & Ilic, 2015). These systemic issues highlight that addressing burnout is not merely an individual concern. Camps may be able to take measures that require systemic changes to policies or processes to address the systemic contributions of camp counselor burnout.
The positive effect of stress on compassion satisfaction is contrary to previous studies (e.g., Craigie et al., 2016). Specifically, stress has been found to have a negative effect on compassion satisfaction (Hegney, Rees, Eley, Osseiran-Moisson, & Francis, 2015), or in some instances, stress had no effect at all on compassion satisfaction (Hegney et al., 2014). Aspects that may contribute to a stressor having a positive or negative effect include the level of agency or choice an individual may have over a situation, the frequency with which the stressor is experienced, the intensity of the stressor, and the individual’s adaptive capacity to manage stressors (Koolhaas et al., 2011). These results suggest that not all stress has negative effects (Sapolsky, 2000). In some cases, mild-to-moderate levels of stress can be important for personal growth by providing an opportunity for reorientation to what is most important for an individual (i.e., eustress; Le Ferve, Matheny, & Kolt, 2003).
Given that the average stress of camp counselors (i.e., 9.78-11.93) fell within the normal range (i.e., 0-14; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), it is possible that some stressors experienced by camp counselors and their abilities to manage those stressors may have been a catalyst for personal growth, and in turn, contributed positively to their compassion satisfaction. Yet, as counselors experience frequent and intense levels of stress above the normal threshold, or beyond their adaptive capacity, the long-term effect could be burnout. As a result, a broadened view of compassion satisfaction that includes to some degree potentially stressful situations is important for camp counselors to understand, or more specifically, that positive responses to statements such as “I get satisfaction from being able to help people” and “I am happy that I chose to do this work” will likely necessitate experiencing and adeptly navigating stressful situations over a period of time. Nevertheless, further research on the unique effect of the different components of stress on compassion satisfaction and burnout could parse out the types of stress that may contribute to each respectively.
As a result, an important factor to consider when training camp counselors is how aspects of burnout, self-care activities, and stress management may affect their work with campers. Trainings and interventions, for example, that focus on stress management techniques and healthy self-care behaviors could both enhance camp counselor well-being and the experience of campers alike. For instance, Thompson, Amatea, and Thompson (2014) underscored the importance of mindfulness-related coping strategies of mental health counselors on their levels of compassion satisfaction. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programs have evidenced significant changes in psychological well-being and adaptive functioning (Birnie, Speca, & Carlson, 2010).
Although self-compassion and value-driven behaviors did not add to the explanatory power of the model, previous research has found that self-compassion contributes to an increased ability to manage stress (Neely, Schallert, Mohammed, Roberts, & Chen, 2009) and in helping buffer the capacity to be self-critical (Allen & Leary, 2010), which may be important when engaging in stressful situations over an extended period of time. Raab (2014) argues that for those situated in helping profession role, self-compassion can both reduce stress as well as result in a greater capacity to provide better client care.
Values-driven behaviors can serve as the mechanism through which a camp counselor may decide to engage in work of a camp counselor. For example, a desire and value of “Making a positive impact on the lives of youth” may allow a camp counselor to sustain engagement with campers in the midst of the stressors such as those relating to campers’ needs (e.g., “Even though things are tough, it is important to remember the big picture of why I’m doing this work”). As a camp counselor consistently engages in values-congruent behaviors, they are likely to experience a decrease in anxiety and an increase in their adaptive functioning in the midst of stressors (Arch & Craske, 2008). Values incongruence (i.e., values obstruction), however, may manifest in a camp counselor’s behaviors such as not being fully emotionally present with campers, avoidance behaviors that negatively impact their ability to facilitate activities or engage in difficult conversations with campers or peers, a decrease in helpful stress management techniques, or the development of mental or physical health issues. To address the conversation about values, Bond (2004) outlines a process whereby an individual identifies their “stress buttons,” identifies and clarifies their values, and then delineates how in the midst of stressors, they might willingly engage in goal-directed behaviors despite the experience of stress.
Limitations and Further Research
While this study addresses the limitations typically associated with cross-sectional data, a major limitation is the small, homogeneous sample of camp counselors. Larger samples could examine within- and between-group differences based on gender, years of experience as a camp counselor, or mental health status. Another confounding factor includes the nature of the relationship between camp counselors and campers. Some camp counselors may have had an earlier counselor relationship with campers and/or have attended the camp together in years prior, which may or may not have facilitated a prior relationship. In future studies, it would be beneficial to examine the contribution of interpersonal factors related to the camp counselor–camper relationship quality on compassion satisfaction over time.
Another potential limitation is the scale used to measure self-care activities. While an attempt was made to quantify broad categories of self-activities from the literature as well as the frequency of engaging in those activities, it would be important to develop a more valid measure of self-care activity that may examine a more holistic view of self-care. The varying time intervals pose another limitation and generalizability of the results. Due to the varying lengths of each camp session (i.e., 3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 2 weeks), an indication of when compassion satisfaction might increase and/or decrease can be difficult to ascertain. Including multiple assessment points within each camp session may help to better pinpoint the time period that camp counselors are most susceptible to burnout and, as a result, need additional support and intervention. Finally, the best model as determined by evaluating the BF (6,111.26) was Model 4 that accounted for only 46% of compassion satisfaction. Although the addition of predictor variables in Models 5, 6, and 7 resulted in increased R2, the BF progressively reduced from Models 5 to 7. These results indicate that although values progress, values obstruction, and self-compassion contribute to compassion satisfaction, their contribution was not sufficient to further explain compassion satisfaction. These findings may be attributed to the small sample size in this study. Further research that explores the role of values and self-compassion on compassion satisfaction is required.
Conclusion
Each year, summer camps serve a large number of individuals ranging from children to adults. For camp counselors, this experience has the potential to be life enhancing and contribute to compassion satisfaction, while the demands can also lead to burnout. Organizations that are cognizant of camp counselors experiencing compassion satisfaction would be prudent to establish trainings and interventions that provide opportunities for camp counselors to identify potential stressors, identify their stress threshold as to avoid burnout, and provide ongoing monitoring of camp counselor engagement in self-care activities to enhance compassion satisfaction. In addition, it would be important for camps to assess how systemic- and work-related processes and structures may contribute to camp counselors’ burnout. As a result, addressing compassion satisfaction should involve both individual and systemic processes.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.