Inquiry-Based Learning Through Birdsong

Abstract

Birdsong as a phenomenon falls at the intersection of two disciplines: ecology and music. The shared space includes bird vocalizations and musical patterns that comprise these vocalizations. The connection between natural sounds and human music has recently garnered attention from both scientists and musicians; however, thematic-based curricular connections between the science of birdsong and musical concepts have yet to be fully explored in research settings. To address this, a fifth-grade curriculum unit combining ecology and music was developed within the organizing theme of Birdsong. Inquiry-based learning guided engagement of students and teachers; the culminating project was student-composed birdsongs. The researchers examined what issues arose when integrating two disciplines, what issues arose when integrating two disciplines, how a curriculum unit based on birdsong differs when students experience problems from dissimilar viewpoints, and how projects can require inquiry-based learning. Implications for teacher preparation are included.

Keywords

creative thinking interdisciplinary learning ecology birdsong music composition inquiry-based learning project-based curriculum

Introduction

In educational circles, the concept of thematically integrating content across disciplines has been a topic of interest for educational philosophers and psychologists, most notably Dewey (1938), since the late 1800s and early 1900s. Dewey advocated for inquiry-based learning in which students worked on problems that were not discipline based but rather interdisciplinary based. For him, this represented learning in everyday experiences: One is “halted” when a situation arises, and resolution of the situation often requires knowledge across disciplines. If school curricula were based on such an approach, students would be offered opportunities to identify and frame problems while acquiring understanding of other situations across disciplines. The framework for learning would be a theme-based, integrated curriculum with projects at the center of the “educative” experience (Dewey, 1938). Projects would evolve out of past learning experiences in which subsequent problems are identified, framed, and solved.

Over the past 30 years, the field of education has experienced resurgence in this curricular approach particularly through the work of those associated with Project Zero, a think tank and research center at Harvard (Gardner & Perkins, 1988) that embraces project-based curricula.¹ Many scholars who write about philosophy of education, music education, and cognitive learning theories also supported such approaches to curriculum (e.g., Bruner, 1960, 1996; Eisner, 1998; Goodlad, 2004; Reimer, 2003; Torff, 2002). Specifically, Torff has purported that multiple cognitive processes are used across abilities that are needed to be successful across disciplines.

Purpose and Research Questions

This particular article is based on a research project that included content from ecology and music, specifically bird vocalizations and aural identification of musical elements, which was integrated throughout a 12-lesson curriculum unit focused on composition. As students demonstrated acquired knowledge and skills between and within two discrete disciplines, they drew on multiple cognitive processes across domains to gain further insights about birdsongs—the construction from a musical perspective and function from a habitat perspective. The composition-based activities were carried out in groups; students collaborated while identifying, framing, and solving problems as they acquired knowledge and composed music.

The purpose of this article is to examine the challenges and effectiveness of a curriculum unit as implemented in a fourth-/fifth-grade general and music classroom. The following research questions (RQs) will be addressed here:

RQ1: What issues arise when integrating two seemingly disparate disciplines like ecology and music for the purposes of implementing a project-based curriculum unit?

RQ2: Are components of a curriculum unit based on “birdsong” experienced differently than if the content was introduced in a discrete fashion?

RQ3: Can projects that use knowledge across disciplines enable transfer? If so, how? Is inquiry-based learning critical for this to happen? If so, why?

Linking Ecology and Music in the Classroom Through Birdsongs

Birdsong as a phenomenon falls at the intersection of two very different fields: ecology and music. The intersection consists of vocalizations created by birds and the musical patterns that comprise such vocalizations. This connection between natural sounds and human music has attracted attention from scientists and musicians interested in “the music of nature and the nature of music” (Gray et al., 2001; Milius, 2000), generating new terminology (e.g., biomusicology) and initiatives like the BioMusic Project in conjunction with the National Musical Arts program.²

Despite obvious connections between the science of birdsong and musical concepts, curricular issues related to application of science and music content in thematic-based curricula have received minimal attention.³ It was hypothesized by the researchers of this project that the integration of science and music could include a focus on ecology and music, specifically on the function of birdsong and the aural identification of timbre, pitch, and duration. With this knowledge—acquired through inquiry-based learning—students could create compositions while using musical content inspired by and extracted from birdsongs, with the option of incorporating affect as reflected in the function of the birdsong.

For the purposes of this article, interdisciplinary is defined as connecting distinct disciplinary concepts and facets of inquiry to create a common understanding of a complex issue, question, or problem. Interdisciplinarity can be found in four main contexts (Nissani, 1995). This particular context involved interdisciplinary education—two components of two or more disciplines integrated together for a program of instruction.

Using Inquiry-Based Learning Through Interdisciplinary Study

The theoretical framework for this project was inquiry-based learning with projects structuring the curriculum; content from two disciplines was included. The philosophy of inquiry-based learning has roots in constructivism, specifically the work of Bruner (1960, 1996) and Goodlad (2004), all of which is rooted in Dewey’s (1938) theory of educative experiences. This type of learning has gained popularity in a number of fields. Mathematics and science education embrace this approach to provide students hands-on experiences that challenge them to make their own discoveries. In science and mathematics classrooms, immersive programs examining Hammerhead sharks (Handler & Duncan, 2006), using astronomy software programs designed to enhance curriculum (Taasoobshirazi, Zuiker, Anderson, & Hickey, 2006), contextualizing the teaching of fractions in middle-school (Johanning, 2008), teaching earth sciences to middle school students (Gobert & Pallant, 2004), and working in the field on a variety of scientific pursuits (Zoldosova & Prokop, 2006) all yielded positive reports from both teachers and students. In some cases, these inquiry-based learning experiences were also linked to higher student achievement on standardized tests. Jalil, Abu Sbeih, Boujittif, and Barakat (2009) conducted a 2-year study wherein elementary-level science students reported they preferred self-directed learning, and enjoyed the challenge of discovering how to meet and overcome a challenge. Barab et al. (2000) reported similar experiences in undergraduate learning environments.

Business education at the undergraduate level has also benefited from inquiry-based learning. Classes teaching communication and business management have embraced what are most commonly referred to as problem-based learning as a way to link theory and practice. Saatci (2008) reported the utility of problem-based learning as a tool to facilitate intercultural relationship in an undergraduate business course. The approach is discussed as an effective way to help students anticipate, explore, and respond to potential real-life situations dealing with customers and colleagues. Pennell and Miles (2009), reporting similar findings, discuss the use of problem-based learning in a business communications class. The approach was used to explore topics of locality, rhetoricity, and change—to challenge students to consider what knowledge they have, what knowledge is necessary to address different programs, and how they will acquire what knowledge they deem to be necessary.

The notion of inquiry-based learning through projects requires knowledge from various disciplines. Gardner and Perkins (1988), as part of the Harvard Project Zero team, continue to write and research about educational spaces that require students to be engaged in solving problems collaboratively—problems that are not discipline based but draw on multiple disciplines during the process. These experiences involve students actively examining and reflecting while working in the project. The classroom teacher involved in this particular project bases her classroom on Harvard Project Zero and reports the growth of students’ inquiring minds.⁴ Here, students not only solve problems but also identify and frame problems as they embark on the project at hand. In composition, the problems are musical and arise as soon as the student begins to explore possible motives, form, rhythms and related meters, harmonies, and timbre as found in the content of birdsongs. They might decide to focus on a particular context or situation in which the song is sung, thus examining the function of the song. This might influence choices made about the aesthetic or characteristics of the musical elements. This approach allows students to be involved in the “whole game” (Perkins, 2009), that is, identifying and solving problems using musical content based in knowledge learned about birdsongs.

Overview of Birdsong Curriculum

The curriculum unit drew on the two discrete disciplines of ecology and music. Birdsong was the theme that provided content for the projects as realized in composition. The curriculum was collectively developed by a music education, ecologist, and science educator and was implemented in four schools across two different states.⁶ The fourth implementation of the curriculum is the focus of this article.

The curriculum unit can be implemented in up to 12 consecutive classes and can be adapted for fourth- through sixth-grade classes. The content consists of knowledge based on science and music standards, involves students in inquiry-based learning, and, at its core, involves a composition project based on birdsongs, in which timbre, pitch, and duration of the songs and knowledge of the song’s function and bird’s habitat are examined and concepts of melody, harmony, expression, and rhythm are integrated. Specific activities include the following: (a) realizing bird chirps in different instruments with the goal of sounding as realistic as possible, (b) considering the particular function of the chirps in the bird’s environment, (c) thinking through notions of communication (e.g., call/response, question/answer), (d) exploring melodic motives to increase texture and diversify timbre, and (e) determining form (e.g., AB, ABA, theme and variations, and rondo). Thinking skills can include but are not limited to identifying, describing, applying, analyzing and synthesizing, exploring, diverging, converging, and evaluating. For this particular project, the focus of the curriculum was on two educational issues: strengthening understanding in science and music and making explicit songs and patterns of birds. More details of the specific content and principles are displayed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Ecological and Musical Content and Principles.

Ecological content
Birds use vocalizations to attract mates, guard territories and warn of danger	Songs vary by location (dialects) and can be used to delineate subpopulations and understand avian evolution (for reviews of birdsong, see Ball & Hulsa, 1998; Baptista & Gaunt, 1994; Kroodsma & Byers, 1991; Slater, 2003)
Scientists study birdsong to investigate social interactions, understand reproductive behavior, and explore evolution	Birdsong is used to estimate bird abundance and monitor populations (Ralph, Geupel, Pyle, Martin, & DeSante, 1993)
Ecological principles
Species of birds as identified by their songs	Number of birds as identified via audio clues
Birds’ patterns of communication	Methods for interpreting songs
Musical content and methods for interpreting songs
Identifying pitch, melodic patterns, contour of melodies, duration, rhythmic patterns, meter, and aspects of timbre and texture of specific birdsongs	Understanding the construction of birdsongs
Understanding the relationship between and amongst aspects of music through using material from birdsongs in composition	Identifying the affect of the context and function of the song and realizing it through composition

Method

The Setting

The school is situated in a Midwestern city. The classroom teacher, Carrie (C), teaches a mixed fourth- and fifth-grade class, and describes herself as a networker and teacher-leader; she is someone who loves to get people talking about what really matters to them about education and what they are learning about learning.⁵ She has taught for 30 years; her class is based on approaches espoused by Harvard Project Zero. Specifically, the approach includes inquiry-based learning through project-based activities; the projects require knowledge across disciplines and structure the curriculum. For her, the concept of the unit was a direct reflection of how students are engaged in her classroom. Jean (J), the music teacher, is in her 40th year of practice, having completed 8 years at the current school. She spent 32 years in a public school with a different socioeconomic status than the one she is currently experiencing. Her teaching is influenced mainly by Orff pedagogy and to a lesser extent the Kodály method, the Dalcroze approach, and Music Learning Theory. In her class, students typically do not work in groups nor do they compose. While content was integrated throughout the year, 4 weeks were dedicated to the composition project with a “concert” presented in the fifth week.

It should be noted that this particular school is a private school that, for the most part, serves middle- to upper-class populations. Being described as an independent, coeducational day school, it was also acknowledged by both C and J that each has much autonomy over the curriculum and pedagogical approach. J commented on the difference between working in this particular school and the previous school of employment—one that was public and served, for the most part, underserved populations.

Data Collection

Data included verbal responses collected via semistructured interviews with the classroom and music teacher; the collecting instrument was the camera on a Macintosh computer. Questions revolved around the following themes: (a) perceptions of what students understood or did not understand as reflected in their words and manipulation of materials throughout the project, as well as the product; (b) data that revealed leverage points, specifically those that leveraged students’ ability to strategize, problem find, and solve individually as well as in a group, so students became involved and were engaged; and (c) data that revealed the content. Specific questions are presented in Table 2. For this particular article, data from answers to Questions 6, 7, 8, and 9 were analyzed. Question 6 informs RQ1, Questions 7 and 8 inform RQ2, and Question 9 informs RQ3.

Table 2.

List of Structured Interview Questions.

1. What activities did you include that were in the materials provided to you? What did you not include? Why or why not?

2. What concepts were challenging for the students? Why?

3. What concepts were accessible to the students? Why?

4. What forms of representation reflected the students understanding?

5. What activities required students to think critically—that is, to identify a problem, strategize solutions, implement the steps, and evaluate those solutions?

6. What issues, if any, arose when integrating two distinct disciplines (i.e., ecology and music) when implementing a curriculum that is project based and requires inquiry learning?

7. What issues, if any, arose with respect to assessment when implementing a curriculum unit that integrates two distinct disciplines?

8. When did the students think like ecologists and when did they think like musicians, if at all?

9. What is it about inquiry-based learning, if anything, which might enable transfer of knowledge across disciplines?

Analysis

Through analysis of the text, phrases and sentences were identified that revealed perceptions in response to what was asked (see questions); a further analysis identified patterned regularities of key words and sentences (Wolcott, 1994) that suggested common themes and issues (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). This process involved reading through transcripts to gain an overall perspective of the information and rereading to highlight key words that represented thoughts, ideas, and feelings that were articulated in response to the questions. In addition, immediate responses to those words were written in the margins—responses that were in the form of questions, reminders, and reactions. When words or phrases appeared more than once across answers of students, categories were created. What is presented does not represent all information that was given in the form of answers, as some was discarded (Wolcott, 1994), that is, what was not relevant to the research questions that guided this particular inquiry.

Findings

RQ1: What issues arise when integrating two seemingly disparate disciplines like ecology and music for the purposes of implementing a project-based curriculum unit?

The first research question considered what issues were present when integrating the two different disciplines of ecology and music for the purpose of implementing a project-based curriculum that involves inquiry learning. Three main themes arose from teacher feedback including partnership, approaches to pedagogy, and curricular content.

Partnership

C and J discussed the need for effective communication and a balanced team approach that managed and incorporated different viewpoints. The very nature of connecting multiple disciplines requires multiple people to work together. For this project, the researchers determined the bulk of the content—that was related to birdsong and musical elements—and how students would represent their understanding, that is, a composition based on knowledge acquired through the study of birds, birdsongs, and musical concepts. This was critical for C and J to be able to determine what needed to be planned within each classroom and how interconnections would occur. Particularly in the planning stages of this process, effective communication and understanding each others’ learning and teaching styles were found to be critical, especially in terms of identifying and using current engagement strategies for working with students, and the time line for making content available and known. C spoke at length about the need for solid partnering because of multiple angles with which to view the project, thus the team approach was critical. Since the content was interdisciplinary, each member’s knowledge about her discipline was essential for the “inter” to make sense and for the multiple discipline-based understandings as well as the relationships between each to be conveyed and understood by the students. The teachers also noted that the time frame for the project needed to be realistic to ensure that the learning unfolded with space for understanding to be grounded and formative assessment to occur throughout. As J stated while reflecting on her experience working on as part of a team,

Each teacher in this school really feels that they are like hubs or islands—each is a hub teacher and the other subjects and teachers relate to what they teach—the teachers have little idea what is going on in the rest of the school, but the new head has had us to observe at least one other teacher this year—so some of that is beginning to happen—the notion of knowing what is going on in other parts of the school.

She felt that what was experienced while working on the birdsong curriculum was a move in the right direction for collaboration and connections between different departments to evolve, as it opened the door for interdisciplinary learning to occur within an integrated curriculum.

C echoed J’s sentiments as she spoke about the need for differing perspectives and disciplines to be part of any inquiry-based learning in which projects are the hubs. Both adopt the view that disciplines are connected and thus are experienced as connected; it is necessary, therefore, that teachers work in partnership. The need to bring each other’s expertise to the planning of projects for student engagement is critical because only then can the connections be rich and meaningful. In this project, C and J experienced bringing each of their expertise—thus insights and leadership—to the project, all of which was capitalized on during the learning experience.

Approaches to Pedagogy

Effective pedagogical approaches for implementing inquiry-based curricula were identified by both teachers. Topics of discussion and reflection included constructivist approaches, making connections across ideas, having experts in each field to assess respective effectiveness, and the use of formative assessment. Both C and J embraced constructivist approaches for their classroom; as such, inquiry-based learning resonated well with their past and current curricular approaches. Both teachers discussed the importance of students making connecting across ideas, as opposed to simply memorizing facts and figures. J’s pedagogical approach encouraged exploration, sometimes having students improvise on instruments while also using musical vocabulary to gage what students understood.

C spoke about problem-based learning and using projects to investigate problems. She mentioned the need to have experts from each field (music and science) in order to most effectively assess the respective parts o the project. Both C and J discussed how formative assessment was a staple of their pedagogical practice for inquiry-based learning in the classroom.

Curricular Content

Both teachers reflected on the need for the people involved in a project-based curriculum unit to actively make cross-disciplinary connections and to provide opportunities for students to engage with information and experiences. Both teachers viewed the separation of music and ecology topics as artificial; the main challenge for implementing integrated curriculum is to mobilize people to implement and facilitate immersive learning opportunities.

Another important issue in integrated curricular experiences is how to engage students with the information; content is abundant and accessible and thus it is as important as ever to think carefully about engagement of the students. C commented on this challenge:

I don’t tell them you must do this or you must do that. It’s sort of wallowing around in the waters of the problem using tech to explore [and to] determine: Is there a problem? What is the problem? OK, now what to people need to know about the problem and what research should be done?

The role of the teacher in these situations changes from providing information to facilitating access to information necessary to address problems surrounding the task at hand. Integrating curricular content then, affords the connections to be maintained and used as students identify, frame, and solve problems that draw on content knowledge across disciplines.

Apart from the three main themes that surfaced in response to the first research question, both teachers indicated a desire to implement the project the following year.

RQ2: Are components of a curriculum unit based on ‘Birdsong’ experienced differently than if the content was introduced in a discrete fashion?

The second research question addressed whether components of a curriculum unit based on “birdsong” were experienced differently than if the content was introduced in a discrete fashion. Feedback from the participating teachers centered on the nature of student involvement: (a) how students were involved in finding, evaluating, and disseminating relevant information; (b) how they used technology; and (c) the kind of space needed for such learning engagement to learn.

According to C, this description reflects units that are theme- or project based. Students construct knowledge and make connections across disciplines thus creating a “hybrid learning environment” in which the combination of melding subject areas and tools with which to learn and make music resulted in “fluid and fluent media shifting.” In terms of using resources on the web, both teachers mentioned the need for students to assess information in an informed fashion. As students find information on the web they need to confirm the authorship, and develop a habit of mind to be critical, of content; this contributes to developing a mindset for lifelong learning. C commented on this:

I think it is a learning context that made it go really well, and that’s a combination of both subject areas melding together and online and face-to-face inter-blending. So they’ve still got their network when they go home and they can all work together on projects outside of school so it’s kind of like the walls of the classroom coming down.

Technology here is viewed not only as a way to facilitate exploration and discovery in the classroom but also as a starting point to extend learning beyond the realm of the classroom. The Internet specifically can help create a student-driven network of information available not just in school but also in other contexts in students’ lives. Technology also facilitated those students who could not be onsite. During one visit, it was noted that one group, although focused on their project, included a member who was homesick. The “sick” student did not want to miss out on anything and was able to use Skype to videoconference in on the action. It was obvious that she was not well, but wearing her pajamas, she began to interact with her peers. It quickly became clear that she did not want to miss her groups’ planning session as they discussed the musical part of the birdsong project and was willing to do whatever it took to stay connected.

C employed project-learning components to immerse students in learning opportunities. The components of teamwork, research, synthesis, and presentation required students to be immersed in each discipline (music and ecology). As with any ecologist or musician identifying, framing, and solving problems, these students required time to engage in the process as well as the willingness to be flexible and fluid. As C stated,

I think it is a learning context that made it go really well, and that’s a combination of both subject areas melding together and online and face-to-face interblending. So they’ve still got their network when they go home and they can all work together on projects outside of school so it’s kind of like the walls of the classroom coming down.

Throughout out, there were no differences reported but rather similarities were noted in terms of the process. In fact, it appeared that the separate strands of content became interwoven as students engaged with it as they completed activities, including the compositions. There are challenges, however, to ensure that students were using what they knew and understanding that content, thus applying the content in an informed manner. One could conclude that the critical aspect of learning and teaching appears to be less about the what–the content, and more about the how–that is, how students are engaged when learning.

Finally, both C and J reported that the process can be messy and chaotic and thus one needs to trust that the process is productive as well. The need for teachers, therefore, to tolerate chaos was reported, as was the need for teachers to provide spaces that were flexible for learning that is more fluid than fixed.

RQ3: Can projects that use knowledge across disciplines enable transfer? If so, how? Is inquiry-based learning critical for this to happen? If so, why?

The ability to enable transfer of knowledge across disciplines through inquiry-based learning was the focus of the third research question. C and J reported that (a) active teacher participation in guiding the learning process and (b) students’ habits of mind to inquire and to develop a mind-set for valuing lifelong learning are key to success with this approach. Students have to adopt habits of mind to inquire within a larger mind-set toward lifelong learning.

Both C and J adopt the view that disciplines are naturally connected; because of this, they see projects that nurture inquiry-based learning as providing spaces for transfer to occur. The transfer has to be guided, however. As J noted,

Most challenging—process or concepts—to actually use what they knew and apply it to what they were doing–to make the transfer into musical sounds.

The role of the teacher, therefore, is critical in facilitating transfer of understanding of content from one context to another. C stated,

You need people coming from different angles who can share their expertise. Personally I’m a person who sees all topics as interrelated so I come from that point of view. I think topics are artificially divided. I think math goes with English goes with science goes with music so I may be an odd duck in that regard.

It was noted that integrating thematic questions as content is introduced allows students to acquire content within a context—that is, the project and relevant themes. Questions guide the activities; content is interwoven throughout the activities and is related to the themes, all of which contribute to the completion of the project. This engagement with the content facilitates transfer because content is acquired and used across contexts. J, when asked if inquiry-based learning is effective and enhance student learning, commented,

Oh yeah. The typical teacher says what’s this or play this and the student regurgitates but this requires students to make the connections—between the academic and the making it work—connecting the synapses. We have all these kindergarteners who can tell you all the rules, but don’t realize that they are not doing the rules.

Finally, both C and J noted that opportunities for students to make big connections appear when teachers are active in providing structure in the learning process through guiding questions. Many of the desirable traits for inquiry-based learning—time, flexibility, fluidity, comparability, exploration, tolerance for chaos, faith to take risks, ability to reflect on one’s learning, ability to assess results and solutions in an informed manner—are all needed when involved in and facilitating for inquiry-based learning.

In terms of nurturing students’ habits of mind to think critically and creatively, and nurturing a mind-set to value lifelong learning (which includes transfer), C commented, “That is what this is all about . . . that’s everything!” Both have adopted the belief, and value, that inquiry-based learning affords connections across disciplines to be maintained and used as students identify, frame, and solve problems that draw on the content knowledge.

Summary

The structure of the inquiry-based curriculum reflects how we engage and understand the world; it reflected what one teacher astutely described as a “hybrid-learning environment.” The teachers spoke of students thinking critically within this environment as made evident by them identifying, evaluating, analyzing and synthesizing, problem finding and solving, exploring, diverging, converging, applying, and evaluating with content acquired. This approach to learning, with its roots in Dewey’s (1938) educative experiences, constructivism, and the work of educative innovators like those involved with Project Zero, responds to the current call for interdisciplinary methods to be embraced as an effective approach in a variety of professional and research spaces. Despite the challenges of integration and recontextualizing learning, and the other issues as identified by the teachers (see above), the birdsong curriculum yielded similar results to those reported in the literature from a variety of different fields. Teachers reported positive experiences both from their vantage point as educators and from the students’ side. With the theme of birdsong, students were able to seek patterns within a context and make connections within and across the two disciplines. Working in groups allowed for social engagement during which students negotiated and mediated as problems were found and solved. Teachers witnessed types of problem solving, collaboration, group-based interaction, and interdisciplinary learning made possible by the integrated birdsong curriculum.

Implications for Music Teacher Education

How might music educators experience settings as described in this article? When might it occur? How can they gain experience in inquiry-based, interdisciplinary work? If we were to adopt inquiry-based learning throughout music education degree programs, systemic changes in how curriculum is structured would have to occur (see Younker, 2012). No longer would courses be offered only through disciplinary “silos” but opportunities would be offered that enable students to work on projects—ones that required knowledge from across disciplines. Disciplines could be found in typical schools of music as well as outside of a school. Such projects should be part of each music education course beginning in the freshmen year. Questions such as “How should students experience learning?” and “How can such experiences afford students to be teachers, facilitators, guides, and learners?” should guide the structuring of the projects, and ultimately the curriculum. Can projects continue beyond the course into the next semester as students register in new courses? Such questions could result in a music education curriculum that is connected across courses and years via content and educative experiences. They also could require us to examine where repetitive content occurs across courses and thus allow time spent to be more effective. Instead of continuous coverage of content, students would be actively engaged in “compositions” of a much deeper level as they realize, implement, and evaluate content within projects.

Implications for Further Implementation

Similar to this setting, two of the three previous settings in which this project was implemented included high levels of teacher autonomy over curriculum choices. Reflecting on the setting for further implementation, the following question should be addressed: What might be similar or different issues for such a project implemented in a public school setting with varying SES populations? The second issue for reflection if implementing such a project is the availability of time for teacher collaboration as well as student collaboration. Third, the pedagogical approach used in the classroom needs to be examined. Is learning based on teacher-directed approaches, student-directed approaches, or a combination of both, in which the teacher and student experience roles of teaching, facilitating, guiding, mentoring, and learning. Finally, what is the level of autonomy and flexibility in classrooms—generally and specifically—for this kind of approach to curriculum and learning?

Conclusion

Involvement in interdisciplinary projects requires grounding in one’s home discipline. This was critical for the birdsong curriculum because the interdisciplinary aspect of the project was strengthened due to the level of the understanding of each discipline at the individual level. The notion of individuals’ strength contributing to a stronger cohesive whole resonates with principles of democratic learning environments (e.g., Dewey, 1938). As we engage in interdisciplinary projects, we are mindful of the importance of strong disciplined-knowledge base and the necessity to look to our colleagues who practice and learn in the field.

In music worlds, we are cognizant of studying music for “music’s sake” and engaging with music for utilitarian reasons (McCarthy & Goble, 2005). Barrett (2001) describes “an interdisciplinary perspective on music education that preserves the integrity of music while making valid connections to disciplines outside music” (p. 28). The goal within this curriculum project was just that: to maintain musical content and not distort it as students searched for organic connections within and between disciplines. Barrett reminds of being mindful about music-specific challenges, the concern with music being foregrounded. As she states,

The discipline of music is often distorted or trivialized in order to fit common models of interdisciplinary curriculum. Goals that seem rife with possibilities are translated into pale shadows of pedagogical practice, such as playing music in the background when studying other subjects or singing songs to learn about dinosaurs or dental hygiene. (p. 27)

In this case, the focus was involving students in a project that encouraged inquiry-based learning in and about two disciplines. The value of each discipline was experienced through the engagement; learning about birdsongs (the music and function) while learning in music through composition. The knowledge across the two disciplines was activated through the process of a variety of activities, including composing. The value of the project was not only learning about the concepts across the two disciplines but also experiencing the “‘doing.” As well, both teachers involved in the research project noted that inquiry-based learning is not owned by any one discipline but rather is experienced as a process that involves content within and across disciplines. An added value is that when students make connections within and across disciplines transfer can be made explicit; content is used in familiar and new settings.

What has become apparent in this analysis, and was clear at the time to the researchers and teachers involved in the project, is that we live in a world of projects that requires ongoing, working knowledge of the interrelationships among disciplines. Our way to investigate how that can be experienced was by developing and implementing curriculum units such as birdsong. Future research could build on these findings by examining interdisciplinary learning between other musical skill areas and ecological topics, or between composition and subjects beyond ecology. The current curriculum could also be expanded to be used in different grade levels, or for a longer period of time at the levels reported here within.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the students and teachers who participated in this project. As well, Younker thanks a former student, Suzanne Pekow, who assisted the project in multiple ways, including collection of data.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

References

Ball

G. F.

Hulse

S. H.

(1998). Birdsong. American Psychologist, 53, 37-58.

Baptista

L. F.

Gaunt

S. L. L.

(1994). Advances in studies of avian sound communication. Condor, 96, 817-830.

Barab

S. A.

Hay

K. E.

Squire

Barnett

Schmidt

Karrigan

Johnson

(2000). Virtual solar system project: Learning through a technology-rich, inquiry-based, participatory learning environment. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 9, 7-25.

Barrett

J. R.

(2001). Interdisciplinary work and musical integrity. Music Educators Journal, 87(5), 27-31.

Barrett

J. R.

McCoy

Veblen

K. K.

(1997). Sound ways of knowing: Music in the interdisciplinary classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bruner

(1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner

(1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Dewey

(1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Collier Books.

Eisner

E. W.

(1998). The kind of schools we need. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

10.

Gardner

Perkins

D. N.

(Eds.). (1988). Art, mind, and education: Research from Project Zero. Urbana: University of Illinois Press

11.

Gobert

J. D.

Pallant

(2004). Fostering students’ epistemologies of models via authentic model-based tasks. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13, 7-22.

12.

Goodlad

J. I.

(2004). Romances with schools. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

13.

Gray

P. M.

Krause

Atema

Payne

Krumhansl

Baptista

L. J.

(2001). The music of nature and the nature of music. Science, 291, 52-54.

14.

Handler

Duncan

(2006). Hammerhead shark research immersion program: Experiential learning leads to lasting education benefits. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15, 9-16.

15.

Jalil

P. A.

Abu Sbeih

M. Z.

Boujittif

Barakat

(2009). Autonomy in science education: A practical approach in attitude shifting towards science learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 476-486.

16.

Johanning

D. I.

(2008). Learning to use fractions: Examining middle school students’ emerging fraction literacy. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39, 281-310.

17.

Kroodsma

D. E.

Byers

B. E.

(1991). The function(s) of bird song. American Zoologist, 31, 318-328.

18.

McCarthy

Goble

(2005). The praxial philosophy in historical perspective. In Elliott

D. J.

(Ed.), Praxial music education: Reflections and dialogues (pp. 19-51). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

19.

Milius

(2000). Music without borders. Science News, 157, 252-254.

20.

Nissani

(1995). Fruits, salads, and smoothies: A working definition of interdisciplinarity. Journal of Educational Thought, 29(2), 121-128.

21.

Pennell

Miles

(2009). “It actually made me think”: Problem-based learning in the business communications classroom. Business Communication Quarterly, 72, 377-394.

22.

Perkins

(2009). Making learning whole: How seven principles of teaching can transform education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

23.

Ralph

C. J.

Geupel

G. R.

Pyle

Martin

T. E.

DeSante

D. F.

(1993). Handbook of field methods for monitoring landbirds (Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-144). Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

24.

Reimer

(2003). A philosophy of music education: Advancing the vision (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

25.

Richardson

C. P.

Atterbury

B. W.

(2001). Music every day: Transforming the elementary classroom.New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

26.

Saatci

(2008). Problem-based learning in an intercultural business communications course: Communication challenges in intercultural relationships in internationalizing small- or medium-sized enterprises. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 22, 237-260.

27.

Silverman

Coffman

Younker

B. A.

(2007). Cheep, chirp, twitter, and whistle. Actively listening to and understanding bird song inspires students to think like both scientists and musicians. Science and Children, February, 20-25.

28.

Slater

P. J. B.

(2003). Fifty years of bird song research: A case study in animal behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 65, 633-639.

29.

Strauss

Corbin

(1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage

30.

Taasoobshirazi

Zuiker

S. J.

Anderson

K. T.

Hickey

D. T.

(2006). Enhancing inquiry understanding, and achievement in an astronomy multimedia learning environment. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15, 383-395.

31.

Torff

(2002). A comparative review of human ability theory: Context, structure, and development. In Colwell

Richardson

C. P.

(Eds.), The handbook of research for music teaching and learning (pp. 509-521). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

32.

Wolcott

H. F.

(1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

33.

Younker

B. A.

(2012). Enacting the vision: Creating and sustaining meaningful composition programs. In Kaschub

Smith

(Eds.), Composing our future: Preparing music educators to teach composition (pp. 341-357). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

34.

Zoldosova

Prokop

(2006). Education in the field influences children’s ideas and interest toward science. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15, 304-313.