100 Years of Human Factors/Ergonomics at Purdue University

Abstract

Human factors/ergonomics (HF/E) has a 100-year history at Purdue University. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth exerted considerable influence on the development of HF/E at Purdue during its first 50 years. Their interdisciplinary approach is evident in the programs of the School of Industrial Engineering and the Department of Psychological Sciences as well as in the many individuals in other departments who have interests in HF/E. Although there has been a shift toward cognitive ergonomics in the past 50 years, the interdisciplinary legacy of the Gilbreths continues to be relevant to research, education, and application in HF/E in the 21st century.

Keywords

Frank Gilbreth Lillian Gilbreth scientific management time and motion study human factors ergonomics

The highly distinguished recipients of the Gilbreths’ interdisciplinary model for training HF/E professionals are a testament to its effectiveness.

Attributing the founding of any field to certain individuals is always subject to some degree of ambiguity, but there is no doubt that Frank and Lillian Gilbreth played a central role in the founding of HF/E. They were partners in the management consulting firm of Gilbreth, Inc., and collaborated on the development of motion study as an engineering and management technique. Their collaboration illustrates the benefits of an interdisciplinary approach, combining Frank’s expertise in construction and biomechanics with Lillian’s proficiency in psychology. Wood and Wood (2003, p. 3) emphasized this point, stating, “Frank and Lillian expanded the boundaries of management research beyond Taylor’s method of time study to encompass both motion study and psychological research.”

After Frank’s death in 1924, Lillian, whose photograph is shown in Figure 1, took the mantle of their methods for many additional decades. Wood and Wood (2003) credited her with being the person to “bring engineering and psychology together for the first time” (p. 3). In agreement, The Engineer of 2020 stated, “Lillian Gilbreth is known as the Mother of Ergonomics, a branch of engineering devoted to fitting the workplace to the worker. . . . Gilbreth’s approach transformed the engineering activity by introducing a primary focus on human needs and capacities” (Clough, 2004, p. 57).

Figure 1.

Lillian Gilbreth. Collection: Purdue University Faculty, courtesy of Purdue University Libraries, Karnes Archives & Special Collections.

Although the Gilbreths’ role in the development of HF/E is well-known, the influence of their interdisciplinary approach to HF/E specifically at Purdue University is not so widely recognized. The purpose of this article is to inform readers of that influence and how the interdisciplinary heritage has endured at Purdue through the many changes in the field that have taken place over the past 100 years.

The Gilbreths and Industrial Engineering

From 1913 to 1916, the Gilbreths held the Summer School of Scientific Management (“Frank Gilbreth,” 2004), which taught the study of motion and psychology and trained professionals in how to teach their students new ideas about management. Among the attendees in 1914 was Lawrence W. Wallace, an assistant professor of railroad and industrial management. Wallace, who had a distinguished career in academia and industry, taught what he learned in 1915 about work measurement as part of an industrial design course (Leimkuhler, 2009). Wallace left Purdue in 1917, and George H. Shepard succeeded him in teaching industrial engineering (IE) topics, including time studies, motion studies, and industrial design. Shepard was author of one of the earliest books on those topics, The Application of Efficiency Principles (Shepard, 1917). He was a leader in education in management and IE, later authoring the textbook The Elements of Industrial Engineering (Shepard, 1928).

Shepard and A. A. Potter, the dean of engineering, were friends of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. As a consequence of their relationship with Potter, the Gilbreths lectured at Purdue regularly for more than 40 years (Leimkuhler, 2009). Frank did most of the lecturing prior to his death, after which Lillian took over. In 1935, Lillian became a full-time faculty member at Purdue, a position she held until 1947. Figure 2 shows her, Potter, and other attendees at a time-and-motion conference in 1937. Leimkuhler (2009) emphasized Gilbreth’s interdisciplinary engagement: “In addition to teaching industrial engineering courses, she taught in other departments, notably psychology, education, and home economics” (p. 97). After retiring from Purdue, Lillian made yearly visits and gave lectures for the next 17 years.

Figure 2.

Principal attendees at Purdue Time and Motion Study Conference, May 11, 1937. Lillian Gilbreth (second to right, first row), A. A. Potter (left, first row). Collection: Purdue University Faculty, courtesy of Purdue University Libraries, Karnes Archives & Special Collections.

Another prominent faculty member at Purdue was Marvin E. Mundel. Mundel developed a technique called memo-motion, or spaced shot photography, which is a tool of time-and-motion study that analyzes long operations by using a camera. Mundel (1950) published the book Motion and Time Study; Principles and Practice, which went through several editions.

Psychological Sciences

Parallel with developments in IE, Joseph Tiffin and Charles Lawshe, hired in 1938 and 1941, respectively, established a graduate program in industrial psychology based in two areas (Tiffin & Lawshe, 1950): industrial relations and human factors in engineering design,

in which the emphasis falls upon the adaptation of industrial equipment and work methods to human limitations. This area involves a consideration of such specific problems as appearance inspection, the use of inspection equipment, optimum methods of work, the appraisal of production procedures, and the design of instruments. (Tiffin & Lawshe, 1950, p. 146)

The main faculty member in the human factors area from the late 1940s through the late 1970s was Ernest J. McCormick. He introduced Purdue’s first engineering psychology course in the early 1950s, for which he wrote the textbook Human Engineering (McCormick, 1957). This book became the standard for HF/E, with the title changing in the second edition to Human Factors Engineering (McCormick, 1964) and in the fourth edition to Human Factors in Engineering and Design (McCormick, 1976). The title was retained through the final, seventh edition (Sanders & McCormick, 1993) and is still in print.

Robert D. Sorkin and Barry H. Kantowitz contributed to the growth of human factors within the Department of Psychological Sciences from the 1960s through the latter part of the 1980s. Both were members of the cognitive program rather than industrial psychology. They coauthored the textbook Human Factors: Understanding People–System Relationships (Kantowitz & Sorkin, 1983), a successor to McCormick’s book, which placed more emphasis on basic psychological processes. Sorkin specialized in optimal detection models and auditory displays, whereas Kantowitz is known for his research in human information processing and multitasking of in-vehicle telematic systems while driving.

Transition to the 21st Century

James W. Barany, who received his graduate degree in IE at Purdue and served on the faculty from 1958 through 2011, represents a bridge from the past to the present. His research interests included occupational ergonomics, methods engineering, and work measurement – areas emphasized at Purdue prior to the 1970s. But Barany was best known for his dedication to HF/E students and the educational programs he organized for professional engineers. In his honor, the Institute of Industrial Engineers annually awards the Barany Student Award for Excellence.

During the last quarter of the 20th century, a shift toward cognitive ergonomics took place in IE as well as in psychology. The most notable figure during this period is Gavriel Salvendy. He initiated two international conferences, Human–Computer Interaction International and Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, which are held annually. Salvendy also founded the International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction and Human Factors & Ergonomics in Manufacturing and Service Industries. One of his most significant contributions is the Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, which brings together researchers from many disciplines and is currently in its fourth edition (Salvendy, 2012).

Another cognitive ergonomist during the latter part of the 20th century was Ray E. Eberts, a faculty member in IE who specialized in usability studies, computer-aided design, process control, and online education. He authored User Interface Design in 1994, which was one of the first textbooks on the topic and, again, was multidisciplinary, described on the cover as covering and integrating “the empirical, cognitive, predictive modeling, and the anthropomorphic approaches” (Eberts, 1994).

Today, faculty members in HF/E have a range of interests that span IE, psychology, and other fields, authoring contemporary, interdisciplinary texts in HF/E (Lehto & Landry, 2011; Proctor & Van Zandt, 2008) and contributing to the development of HF/E in areas including team communication and performance, safety engineering, human performance measurement and modeling, decision making and support, and information visualization.

Former Students and the HFES Purdue University Student Chapter

Among the HF/E specialists who received one or more degrees from Purdue are several past presidents of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES), each of whom made notable contributions to academia and/or industry (see Table 1). Two of these contributions, macroergonomics and situation awareness, are among the most influential developments in HF/E in the past quarter century, and both reflect the interdisciplinary training of their originators. Imada (2011) said of Hal Hendrick, “Macroergonomics is the result of his ability to merge human factors/ergonomics with industrial/organizational psychology and systems theory into a new way of thinking and talking about complete solutions.” Mica Endsley, originator of situation awareness and former chief scientist of the U.S. Air Force, said the following when asked about her experiences at Purdue:

I was originally drawn to Purdue’s human factors program because it provided one of the few integrated programs between IE and psychology. I was able to take courses in both programs and benefited from being able to work with many different professors in both departments as well as in the business school. This range of options and freedom of exploration was very important in creating a strong foundation in human factors. (personal communication, July 29, 2013)

Table 1.

Past Presidents of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Who Received Degress from Purdue University

President	Presidency	Degree	Discipline	Contribution
Douglas H. Harris	1983–1984	PhD 1959	Industrial psychology	System operations; human performance measures
Richard J. Hornick	1985–1986	PhD 1960	Experimental psychology	Forensic issues; product liability
Mark S. Sanders	1989–1990	PhD 1971	Industrial psychology	HF/E in coal mining; HF/E textbook
Thomas B. Sheridan	1990–1991	BS 1951	Mechanical engineering	Human–machine systems; impacts of technology
Hal W. Hendrick	1995–1996	PhD 1966	Industrial psychology/Industrial engineering	Macroergonomics
David D. Woods	1998–1999	PhD 1979	Cognitive psychology	Cognition in complex, high-risk systems
Mica R. Endsley	2011–2012	MS 1985	Industrial engineering	Situation awareness

A key component of the interdisciplinary experience in the past two decades has been the HFES Purdue University Student Chapter, founded in 1993. The chapter’s activities center on exposing students and faculty to ideas and work from a variety of academic departments and industries. Drawing on members from nine departments, the chapter provides a forum that allows students in one department to learn how and why faculty and students in other departments approach problems. HFES’s awards and financial support have been pivotal in fostering an environment that promotes informal and formal interdisciplinary interactions among the chapter members.

Conclusion

More than 100 years ago, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth recognized the value of an interdisciplinary approach to HF/E. In this era of increasingly sophisticated technology and specialized knowledge, which requires research and product development teams, such an approach is even more essential than it was in the past. The Gilbreths’ legacy to HF/E at Purdue and more generally continues to be relevant today, providing a model for training HF/E professionals to deal successfully with the many issues that emerge as technology continues to advance.

Footnotes

Robert W. Proctor is Distinguished Professor of Psychological Sciences at Purdue University, with a courtesy appointment in the School of Industrial Engineering. He received his PhD from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1975 and specializes in basic and applied human performance. He has served as faculty adviser for the HFES Purdue University Student Chapter since 1996.

Sung-Hee Kim is a postdoctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia. She received her PhD in industrial engineering from Purdue University in 2014 and served as president of the HFES Purdue University Student Chapter in the 2013–2014 academic year. Her research specialization is in information visualization and human–computer interaction.

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