Abstract
Decision-making at home and during deployment was examined for 161 spouses of service members (SMs) who were deployed overseas, using baseline spouse reports. Four types of decisions were included: minor household, major household, financial, and decisions about children. Communication methods used during deployment were also examined. With deployment, spouses reported that decision-making changed significantly for all four types of decisions. Decision-making at home was predominantly as a couple; during deployment, more decisions were by the spouse. However, decision-making stayed the same at home and during deployment for 1/3 to 2/3 of families, dependent on the type of decision, and these couples tended to make decisions together. Availability of communication methods that allow rapid exchange of information may contribute to couples managing decisions together. Before deployment, practitioners should discuss current family decision-making and communication patterns and expectations during deployment. During deployment, spouses can be encouraged to take on responsibilities that will help build their independence and facilitate smooth functioning of family life. At the same time, encouragement to continue, as much as possible and appropriate, familiar decision-making during deployment and at home may help ease the SM’s transition from deployment to home.
Many factors affect how individuals and couples make decisions and who has primary responsibility for decisions. For military spouses and service members (SMs), the additional factor of deployment and/or deployment to a combat destination may also affect decision-making. For spouses and SMs, the locus of responsibility may shift during periods of separation when the SM is deployed and periods of togetherness when the SM is at home.
Individual demographic factors and dyad relationship factors can influence decision-making. For example, individuals with lower socioeconomic status may have less education, income, and resources; this lack of resources may lead to negative life events and subsequent poorer decisions (Bruine de Bruin, Parker, & Fischhoff, 2007).
Past decision-making experiences influence subsequent decision-making (Juliusson, Karlsson, & Gärling, 2005). For dual-career commuter couples, research has shown that household duties can be assigned based on typical gender roles or based on commuting status (Rhodes, 2002). Traditional sex-role norms have defined certain areas as the prerogative of one gender (e.g., groceries–wife, automobile–husband; Buss & Schaninger, 1983). However, in the United States today, women have assumed a more prominent role in family decision-making (Belch & Willis, 2002). Military wives are likely to play a similar prominent role in military families with frequent deployments.
Through a process known as outsourcing, one spouse may come to rely on his or her partner to perform more household tasks and handle more day-to-day household chores, such as paying bills, buying groceries, and raising children (Solomon & Jackson, 2014). This role in nonmilitary families is likely to be handled by the partner who is more conscientious. However, for military families, both during deployment and between deployments, the nonmilitary spouse is likely to fill this role. This primary decision-making role can be stressful (Tollefson, 2008); for example, for Operation Desert Storm spouses, a common stressor during the SM’s deployment was children’s discipline (Rosen, Durand, & Martin, 2000).
Although lack of communication is stressful for military spouses (Tollefson, 2008), communication with home can have both positive and negative effects for the SM (Carter & Renshaw, 2015). Communication can improve mental health and morale, although difficult, stressful, or overwhelming communication can decrease occupational effectiveness (Greene, Buckman, Dandeker, & Greenberg, 2010). Some wives of deployed SMs prefer to keep open communication (Cafferky, 2014; Gottman, Gottman, & Atkins, 2011; Merolla, 2010), others censor anything that might be disturbing to the SM (Cafferky, 2014), and others attempt to keep a balance and only disclose important information (Cafferky, 2014; Faber, Willerton, Clymer, MacDermid, & Weiss, 2008). For disclosure of difficult, potentially stressful, or emotionally disturbing information, wives triage whether they should share information, how much information to share, and how to share (Cafferky, 2014; Rossetto, 2013). Wives who perceive that their husbands are in dangerous situations share less stressful information (Cafferky, 2014; Greene et al., 2010; Joseph & Afifi, 2010) and wives who perceive that their husbands are supportive share more (Joseph & Afifi, 2010).
Based on these findings, the goal of the current study was to determine whether military spouses perceived a difference in the couple’s decision-making when the SM was at home and deployed. We hypothesized that who made decisions would change from home to deployment, especially for decisions related to general household functioning, such as minor repairs, or those that were more time-sensitive, such as children’s concerns. Spouses were also asked what communication methods were used while the SM was deployed.
Method
Participants were 161 spouses or significant others living as married of an SM deployed overseas. Spouses were participants in a national randomized controlled trial conducted from 2011 to 2015 to examine strategies to provide support during deployment. This study was funded by Department of Defense (DoD), Defense Health Program, and managed by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Military Operational Medicine Research Program. This study was overseen by the Memphis Veterans Affairs Medical Center Institutional Review Board.
Data and Data Analysis
Spouse self-report data were collected via telephone by trained and certified research specialists. For this analysis, only baseline data were used. There were no currently established instruments available on couple decision-making during deployment, so a Household Decisions questionnaire was developed using the U.S. Agency for International Development Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) Program household decision-making survey (Kishor & Subaiya, 2008). The questionnaire focused on the types of decisions being made and who makes the decision.
The Household Decisions questionnaire comprises eight items asking about minor household decisions (e.g., fixing the washing machine), major household decisions (e.g., replacing a car), financial decisions (e.g., budget and debt repayment), and decisions about children (e.g., medical, educational, and discipline). Each item is asked about both during deployment and while the SM was at home. Following DHS guidelines, items are scored as spouse decides without SM input, spouse decides with SM input, decide together, SM decides with spouse input, or SM decides without spouse input. For analysis, the two “spouse decides …” categories were combined as were the two “SM decides …” categories resulting in three final categories: spouse decides, decide together, and SM decides.
Spouses were asked what communication methods were used while the SM was deployed and how satisfied they were with each method. For each of the eight methods (e.g., letters, e-mail, videoconferencing, blogging), spouses were asked how often each was used, ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (at least once per day). Spouses were asked satisfaction level for each method used, with responses ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (very).
To characterize the sample, demographic data included age, gender, race/ethnicity, years married, employment, number of children, income, and SM’s age, military branch, rank, and previous deployments. Descriptive statistics were compiled using either percentages or means with standard deviations, as appropriate. McNemar’s χ2 tests were used to compare decisions made while the SM was at home to those made while deployed. To find which proportions were significantly different, home versus deployed, the Bonferroni-adjusted difference of proportions test was used. Those using or not using communication methods were compared using independent sample t-tests.
Results
Participants
On average, spouse participants were women in their mid-30s, married about 9 years, and with about two children at baseline (Table 1). About 80% were Caucasian, 8% were African American, and 16% were Latina. Spouses had about 3 years of college and more than half were employed. SMs, on average, were in their late 30s (Table 2). SMs had served in the military for 13 years and 45% were from Army. Consistent with their military years, they had 3.4 total deployments. In general, they were about 3 months into their current deployment.
Baseline Characteristics of Spouses of Deployed Service Members.
Baseline Characteristics of Deployed Service Members.
Note. OEF/OIF/OND = Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan)/Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation New Dawn (Iraq).
Communication Methods
Almost ¾ of spouses (70.2%) reported having problems communicating with their SM during deployment and 79.5% reported that communication was moderately or very stressful. Common methods of communication were e-mail and telephone (Table 3), and spouses were satisfied with these methods. For those who used them, all but two communication methods averaged weekly use; letters and other methods were used approximately monthly. There were age differences in methods of communication. Spouses who used text messages were older (37.4 years ± 8.2 vs. 33.9 years ± 7.9, p = .007). The same was true for videoconferencing (36.3 years ± 8.1 vs. 33.3 years ± 8.1, p = .037). Spouses who communicated through social networking sites were younger (34.3 years ± 8.0 vs. 37.7 years ± 8.2, p = .010).
Baseline Communication Methods While Service Member Deployed.
Note. N = 161. For Usage Scale: 1 = at least once every few months, 2 = at least once per month, 3 = at least once per week, and 4 = at least once per day. Other methods of communication included sending packages and flowers.
Decisions
For the four types of decisions studied, there were statistically significant differences between decision-making responsibility while the SM was at home versus during deployment (Table 4). Specifically, spouses reported taking more responsibility during deployment, with decisions made together decreasing. They further reported that, except for minor household decisions, SM primary responsibility in decision-making was not significantly different between home and deployment.
Decision-Making When Service Member (SM) is at Home and Deployed.
Note. p values are estimated by McNemar’s χ2 test.
*Bonferroni-adjusted difference of proportions (home vs. deployed) test significant at .05 level.
Some spouses reported that their decision-making was the same during deployment and at home. Accordingly, for minor household decisions, 27.8% of couples made decisions the same way at home and deployment; for major household decisions, 65.8%; for financial decisions, 55.0%; and for decisions about children, 38.4%.
Discussion
This study examined communication methods and decision-making strategies reported by military spouses of SMs who were deployed. Before discussing results, study limitations and areas of future research should be acknowledged. First, data were only collected from spouses and not from SMs. Comparison of couples’ perceptions of how decision-making changed during deployment would provide a more rounded picture. Second, in this sample, the Navy was slightly overrepresented and the Air Force underrepresented, compared to their proportions of all military branches. If one branch has better communication availability, this could affect results. For future studies, expanding this research to couples who are no longer in the military could determine if and when couples’ decision-making strategies change. The benefits of using one decision-making strategy or another would also be a fruitful area for research into couples’ perspectives. Finally, qualitative data could deepen insight into decision-making, particularly focusing on why and how some couples are able to be more consistent in their decision-making strategies.
In general, spouses reported that the couples made decisions together for all four decision types when the SM was at home. With deployment, decision-making was significantly different for all four types of decisions. Spouses reported that they were often the decision-maker during deployment, with or without input from the SM and SMs did not have the level of primary responsibility for any category of decision that spouses had. This finding echoes what is seen in American life today as women assume larger roles in decision-making (Belch & Willis, 2002). However, in addition to this national trend, military spouses may choose or accept larger roles in decision-making if the SM is deployed or likely to be redeployed, as has been the case with the increased operational tempo of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. For example, 38% of Army soldiers deployed to Iraq from 2003 to 2008 had been deployed more than once and 10% had been deployed 3 times or more (Shanker, 2008).
Depending on the type of decision, 1/3 to 2/3 of spouses reported that their families’ decision-making stayed the same for home and deployment. These couples most frequently reported that decision-making responsibility was together. Availability of synchronous communication methods (e.g., telephone and videoconferencing) or those that allow rapid exchange of information (e.g., e-mail, text, and instant messaging) no doubt contributes to the ability to manage decisions together. In fact, e-mail and telephone calls were common methods of communication. Although fewer than 50% of spouses used text and instant messaging, those who did reported high satisfaction with these methods. The high cost of private cell phone service overseas and/or the military need to control access to communication during crises may explain the low utilization of these two methods of communication.
There are positives and negatives in sharing responsibility. Attempting to involve the SM in every decision may be overwhelming and inefficient, especially for those decisions that need rapid response such as minor repairs and children’s discipline. Too much communication with home may make the SM feel distracted and helpless (MacDermid et al., 2005) and decrease occupational effectiveness (Greene et al., 2010). However, keeping the SM involved could maintain the relationship during deployment (Carter & Renshaw, 2015; Merolla, 2012; Rossetto, 2013). Negative consequences for the SM could be minimized if spouses shade their interactions toward the positive due to their hesitancy to share difficult or stressful information when the SM is in danger (Cafferky, 2014; Joseph & Afifi, 2010; Rossetto, 2013).
Further, continuing to involve the SM in decision-making may reduce major role negotiation postdeployment because the SM has remained part of the family decision-making process. A return to former roles and decision-making is one of the most difficult tasks couples face postdeployment and between deployments, especially for military couples where the SM experiences a long deployment or multiple closely spaced deployments (Gambardella, 2008). Reintegration can be particularly problematic if the at-home spouse has developed new skills and independence. Although skills and independence are critical for the spouse’s self-esteem and ability to manage the deployment, they increase the difficulty of successful role negotiation and transition postdeployment (Gambardella, 2008).
Implications for Practice
During and after deployment, many military family members do not participate in formal military programs (Di Nola, 2008). In particular, Guard and Reserve families, because they generally do not live near military bases, and veteran families, who no longer have access to military care, receive their care from community health and mental health providers (Tanielian et al., 2014). Despite this, many community psychologists have not seen the treatment of military families as part of their mission, perhaps partly due to the assumption that military families will be cared for by the military and a lack of knowledge about military culture (Hoshmand & Hoshmand, 2007).
In a study of community mental health practitioners, including psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and licensed counselors, only half (50.1%) screen patients to determine military affiliation and only 47.3% screen about stressors related to military life (Tanielian et al., 2014). However, community practitioners can support the well-being of military families (Hoshmand & Hoshmand, 2007), particularly, military spouses facing deployment of the SM. Before deployment, practitioners should discuss current family decision-making and communication patterns and expectations during deployment. Discussing methods of communication can help develop a communication plan during deployment, allowing the couple to express expectations before the deployment. Before and during deployment, practitioners can build upon the dual inclinations of families to both shift responsibility to the spouse and to maintain decision-making patterns. At-home spouses can be encouraged to take on responsibilities that will help build their independence and facilitate smooth functioning of family life. At the same time, encouragement to continue, as much as possible and appropriate, familiar decision-making during deployment and at home may help ease the SM’s transition from deployment to home.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
We thank the intervention and data collection staffs: Denise Brown, MS; Carolyn Clark, MA; Karsten Everett, MS; and Lauren Haley, MS. We also thank our participants for finding time to participate in this study.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this work.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Department of Defense (DoD), Defense Health Program (DHP), managed by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Military Operational Medicine Research Program (MOMRP; W81XWH-11-2-0087), with additional support from the Memphis Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not represent the views of the Department of Veterans Affairs or the U.S. government.