Closing the Acculturation Gap

Abstract

As the minority population of the United States grows rapidly, there is an increased need for culturally attentive counseling. East Asian Americans are a particularly large group among U.S. minorities, and their culture is distinct from those of other Asian groups. Their values are rooted in Confucian values and teachings, including the importance of respect, family, emotional restraint, saving face, and others. When these families immigrate to the United States, they face the process of acculturation, which affects members of the family differently, according to generation. East Asian Americans often present in counseling with acculturation-related conflicts between parents and children. Family counselors can use a Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) approach for family counseling to provide a problem-solving orientation to suit these clients. The theory is adaptable to fit clients’ worldviews, and its application can be used in a family-focused way that aligns well with this collectivist culture’s way of viewing themselves. A case example and transcripts illustrate the application of SFBT principles and techniques with a Chinese American multigenerational family.

Keywords

multicultural East Asian family solution-focused counseling

Asian Americans are one of the fastest growing ethnic minority groups in the United States, which has seen an increase of 43.3% in the Asian population since 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). In response to this rapid growth, counselors must be prepared to provide services in a manner that is culturally sensitive to individuals and families of Asian heritage (C. Lee, 2001). Immigrant families bring with them cultural history, values, and beliefs into the counseling session. Therefore, family counselors need to be ready to attend to these cultural aspects, especially when working with clients from a culture that is diametrically different from the U.S. American culture.

A related challenge for family counselors when working with family members composed of multiple generations is the differing levels of acculturation (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). Younger generations are more likely to adhere closely with the U.S. American values, whereas parents and grandparents still maintain loyalty to their heritage culture. A goal of therapy may be to help family members balance these two cultural systems.

This article presents a case for using Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) as a viable approach when working with East Asian American (EAA) families and individuals. The SFBT approach, developed by Insoo Kim Berg and Steve de Shazer (Berg, 1994; DeJong & Berg, 2002; de Shazer, 1991), has gained momentum in the field of social work and counseling over the last few years (Franklin, 2012; Kim, 2008). Various researchers (Corcoran, 2000; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004) demonstrated the effectiveness of applying SFBT with ethnic minority clients. An advantage of SFBT in multicultural counseling is that the counselor actively draws on the cultural resources and strengths of the client in their clinical work (Corcoran, 2000; O’Connell, 2005). Additionally, this approach emphasizes observable and measurable goals, which appeals to East Asian clients (Kim, 2008). The authors present a case illustration to demonstrate the application of SFBT approach with a Chinese American family.

Asian Americans are a culturally heterogeneous group; therefore, the current discussion focuses primarily on EAA culture. EAAs have a shared cultural history and shared values in the Confucian philosophy, such as filial piety, restraint, mutual obligations, family harmony, among others (Berling, 1996). The EAA population includes Chinese, Korean, and Japanese individuals and families, who make up more than 40% of the Asian population in the United States (Hoeffel, Rastogi, Kim, & Shahid, 2012). The terms Asian Americans and EAAs will be used interchangeably throughout the article.

Cultural and Acculturation Considerations

East Asian Culture and Family

EAA culture shares common philosophical traditions that are rooted in the teachings of Confucianism. Confucian teachings influence many aspects of East Asian worldviews including political, spiritual, and cultural aspects (Berling, 1996; C. Chang & Myer, 1997). With regard to family, the teachings state that “members were to treat each other with love, respect, and considerations for the needs of all” (Berling, 1996, p. 7), also known as filial piety (Hsu & Wang, 2011; Park & Cho, 1995). Embedded within this concept are implicit rules and expectations of family obligations that an individual should obey (Ikels, 2004). For instance, unlike United States’ cultural norm of individuals maintaining their independence from the age of 18 years until late adulthood, Asian parents expect their children to care for elders until the elderly family member passes away. While Asian children are growing up, the parents expect and raise them to work hard for both their own gain and later contributions to the family and society (Epstein et al., 2012).

Another cultural concept that is important for family counselors to understand is hierarchy. The hierarchical roles within family are determined by generational status (i.e., age or birth order) and gender (Hsu & Wang, 2011). For example, in a traditional Chinese family, the grandfather will command the most respect and authority. The eldest son also has the responsibility of upholding the family name, which means that the career and romantic partner he considers should be reflective of his parent’s values. Outside the family structure, hierarchy is reflected in social roles. Individuals are to respect elders, teachers, and experts (Epstein et al., 2012). As clients, East Asian families and individuals will defer to the family counselor and may feel frustrated if the family counselor promotes power equality (Epstein et al., 2012).

Lastly, Confucianism teaches that one should practice personal restraint and self-control (Lieber, Fung, & Leung, 2006). EAAs generally suppress their individual wishes in order to maintain harmony with others. It is parents’ duty to train their children to contain their emotions and behaviors (Lieber et al., 2006). This attitude has led many to stereotype Asian Americans as passive and nonassertive (Epstein et al., 2012). From the EAA perspective, many traditional members of this culture view expressing emotions or making one’s wishes explicit as a lack of self-restraint.

Acculturation

Immigrants undergo a process known as acculturation, which is the adaptation to the receiving country’s cultural norms (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936)—in this case, those of the United States. Acculturation differs from individual to individual and is generally influenced by factors such as age of immigration, level of comfort and frequency of contact with members of the U.S. culture, differences of values and beliefs, and language (Berry, 2005).

Cross-cultural psychologists developed a classification system to categorize the different stages of immigrants (Rumbaut, 2004). Adults born in an Asian country who immigrated to the United States are known as first-generation immigrants. Children of immigrant families born in the United States are called second-generation Asian Americans. Between the first generation and second generation are the overseas-born children immigrants, also known as 1.5 generation or 1.5G (Rumbaut, 2004). Related to traditions and values, EAA families experience unique challenges in family dynamics, especially in terms of the relationship between first-generation parents and their 1.5G or second-generation children (C. Chang & Myers, 1997; Nah, 1993). Generally, 1.5G children acculturate more rapidly than first-generation Asian Americans adults, due to frequent exposure and demands of their social systems, such as school, peers, and media (Wong et al., 2011). On the other hand, first-generation EAA adults often retain the values and beliefs of their heritage culture (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001).

This differing level of acculturation, or cultural dissonance, creates a shift in the family relationship structure, and it is most visible in the context of parent–child relationships (Katz et al., 2003; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004; Ng, 1999). For example, a child’s choice in friends, interest, and study may not align with what the family envisioned for their child. Family counselors may find that EAA families’ presenting issues will be explicitly or implicitly tied to such cultural conflicts (C. Chang & Myers, 1997; Juang, Syed, Cookston, Wang, & Kim, 2012; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004; R. M. Lee, Choe, Kim, & Ngo, 2000). The U.S. individualistic culture encourages individuation and development of independence for adolescents. This value is in stark contrast with a collectivist culture where youths are encouraged to foster interdependence (Singelis, 1994). For example, this conflict may be faced by a Korean American high school-aged adolescent who is choosing whether to leave the family to pursue a degree or to stay with the family while enrolling in a less prestigious college. If the adolescent chooses the former, the family may view this decision as selfish and discourage them from doing so. For some, family unity has precedence over personal desires. Conversely, this adolescent may also be encouraged by their advisor, friends, and teachers to pursue a career. This particular youth may feel conflicted about their decision. Studies also show that parental support decreases for the adolescent as the cultural dissonance widens between the caregiver and the adolescent (J. Ho, Yeh, McCabe, & Lau, 2012; Wong et al., 2011). Schwartz, Vignoles, Brown, and Zagefka (2014) noted that Asian American youths develop mental health issues (e.g., low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression) and externalizing behaviors (e.g., substance abuse and other risky behaviors) when faced with unresolved cultural conflicts such as these.

East Asian Culture and Family Therapy

Over the course of the last decade, mental health awareness is becoming more prominent across the world. However, studies still show that ethnic minorities, including Asian Americans, continue to underutilize mental health services in the United States (Atkinson & Gim, 1989; Atkinson & Matsushita, 1991; Sung, Mayo, Ko, & Lasley, 2013). One reason for this underutilization could be related to EAA’s perception of psychotherapy (C. Chang & Myers, 1997). In their article, Sung, Mayo, Ko, and Lasley (2013) reported that EAA people, in general, perceive seeking mental health services as a family’s failure to support and care for one another. Moreover, traditional therapy approaches are generally applied through a Euro-centric and individualistic lens, which may be, at best, ineffective and, at worst, harmful to clients who do not share the same worldview (Bernal & Rodríguez, 2009). For example, process-oriented counseling approaches and focusing on expression of feelings through modes such as person-centered or Gestalt therapy can frustrate an Asian client because they are inconsistent with the East Asian cultural teachings (Li & Kim, 2004). Traditional American counseling strategies such as focusing on emotional catharsis or divulging personal wishes are in direct contrast with the Confucian teachings of self-restraint and modesty (Atkinson & Matsushita, 1991; Li & Kim, 2004). Instead, a problem-solving approach is more suitable for working with EAA families (C. Chang & Myers, 1997). EAA clients will also view the family counselor as more credible when the family counselor takes a directive stance and provides instructions, which can enhance client’s motivation and collaboration in counseling (C. Chang & Myer, 1997; M. Y. Lee, 2000).

In serving families of different cultures, counselors must conduct counseling in a culturally sensitive manner. This is consistent with the American Counseling Association (ACA) code of ethics (ACA C.2.a, 2014). Therefore, family counselors should take careful steps to modify their counseling practice to specifically serve the needs of their clients. Specific to clients of Asian cultural background, literature promoting cultural competence suggests counselors should be educated about the client’s culture and incorporate the client’s worldview (e.g., client’s language) when developing the therapeutic alliance (Epstein, Curtls, Edwards, Yang, & Zheng, 2014; Kim, 2014). Certain counseling theories are more adaptable than others in incorporating these factors. The current article aims to illustrate how to modify the solution-focused approach in working with families of East Asian cultural backgrounds.

Regardless of theoretical approach, family counselors should be mindful that many EAA families who do not have experience in seeking family counseling services may feel anxious about the counseling process. Therefore, family counselors should take time to thoroughly explain the process in order to help lessen their fears and anxieties (M. Y. Lee, 2000). Furthermore, confidentiality needs to be clear and carefully explained, so that the family can feel a sense of privacy. C. Chang and Myers (1997) discussed the importance of using an ethnocultural assessment tool in addition to a standard assessment when working with Korean American clients. The ethnocultural assessment considers factors such as acculturation level, generational status, ethnicity, self-concept of family members, and migration history (Jacobsen, 1988).

SFBT Overview

SFBT originated in a family-focused context in de Shazer and Berg’s Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the 1980s. It is a postmodern approach that draws from social constructivism and Milton Erikson’s Strategic Therapy (O’Connell, 2005). The use of SFBT by mental health practitioners in the United States and other countries is steadily increasing (Castro & Guterman, 2008; Hsu & Wang, 2011). Research studies support the efficacy of SFBT when working with depression (Johnson & Miller, 1994) in substance abuse treatment (Berg & Miller, 1992), in social services, and in schools (Murphy, 1996). Additionally, there is evidence that supports this approach in working with Latino, Asian, African American, and Asian American clients (Corcoran, 2000; Kim, 2014).

One of the key characteristics of SFBT is its outcomes-based focus on client’s preferred futures (Guterman, 2006). The SFBT family counselor aims to foster a solution-oriented conversation together with the clients in developing observable and feasible outcomes. This approach is known for its use of particular questions, such as the miracle question, outcomes questions, scaling questions, relationship questions, and exception questions (Bannink, 2007; Guterman, 2006; Hsu & Wang, 2011; O’Connell, 2005; Trepper, 2012). The miracle question involves inviting the client to develop a detailed vision of the client’s desirable future, as if a miracle occurred while the client was sleeping. Outcome questions, similarly, seek to build a distinct vision of positive changes that motivate the client toward the preferred future. Scaling questions encourage the client to track small positive and attainable changes on a scale of 1–10 (with 1 being the undesired state and 10 being the preferred outcome). Relationship questions focus on client’s significant relationships, and how the relationships would be different when problems have improved; this is sometimes useful to uncover hidden solutions. Exception questions help the client to clarify circumstances and behaviors when the problem is less severe and may be recreated to move the client toward more lasting solutions (O’Connell, 2005).

SFBT With EAA Families

There are currently no identified counseling models that specifically address the needs of Asian Americans clients (Epstein et al., 2012). SFBT is a proposed approach to fill this gap which is supported by Kim’s (2008, 2014) work in demonstrating SFBT’s usefulness with ethnic minorities from collectivist cultures. In the following section, the authors discuss specific considerations for how SFBT may be effective with EAA families, with suggestions on modifying the theory to better serve this client population.

To begin with, a culturally sensitive practice in serving EAA individuals is to involve their family as part of the counseling process. Hu and Chen (1999) noted that “…everyone must take responsibility for the care of family members, sometimes sacrificing self to help the family” (p. 31) and that “commitment to the family is internalized for Asians” (p. 32). Family involvement in counseling is not only helpful but an important factor in the counseling process, consistent with the collectivist ideology of community. SFBT’s history of use with families makes it an appropriate approach for addressing this need of the EAA population. In this application, family counselors should be mindful of roles and hierarchies within the family itself. The counselor should respect the wishes of the primary decision maker of the family and enlist his or her support in the counseling process.

SFBT can also be culturally responsive to the EAA value of pragmatism. The approach allows the family counselor and family to focus on problem-solving and goal setting with tangible indicators of small progress (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). The family counselor can help clients develop skills and goals that are relevant to their multicultural contexts (C. Lee, 2001). This may also prove helpful in addressing one of the potential challenges of applying SFBT with EAA families, which is the theory’s principle of the client-as-expert (Bannink, 2007; Trepper, 2012). Asian clients may be more familiar with viewing the family counselor as an expert such as a doctor or teacher who instructs, rather than as a collaborator in the way that SFBT typically supports (Ng, 1999). Teaching the family skills and guiding the process of goal development in applying SFBT with EAA families may ease this difference.

Finally, the solution-focused practice of giving clients compliments might be difficult for EAA clients to accept, due to their desire to not stand out among the crowd as individuals or be proud of themselves (Kim, 2008; Trepper, 2012). Family counselor compliments may be best directed to the family as a whole to use this technique in a more culturally appropriate manner.

In order to understand clients’ worldviews, it is critical for family counselors to match the clients’ language and perception of the problem while also normalizing their presenting issues (Berg, 1994; Guterman, 2006). It should be noted that working with multigenerational Asian American families can be a challenge for family counselors, because the helper has to learn how to balance between multiple cultural worldviews and integrate them in the therapeutic work (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). Respecting the family and their worldviews is a critical task when working with Asian families, because “to respect the client is often more important than to help solve problems” (T. H. Chang & Yeh, 1999, p. 10). Because of this, priority should be given to engaging the family in a respectful manner before discussing solutions.

The first step in counseling in such a respectful manner is to identify the head of the family and solicit their support for the family to participate in the session (M. K. Ho, 1993). For example, the family counselor may begin the conversation with the elders, then address the parents, and finally the children. This will show the family that the counselor is respectful and understands the cultural hierarchy that is common in Asian families (C. Chang & Myers, 1997; M. K. Ho, 1993).

Another step the family counselor can take is to communicate their understanding of cultural values such as saving face. Saving face is related to the Confucian virtue of self-restraint. Seeking help from outsiders is often an admission of losing control of the family and shaming the family name (M. K. Ho, 1993; Leong & Lau, 2001). The SFBT approach removes the need to dwell on past mistakes or to shame a family member and instead can focus on positive solution- and future-focused conversations (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). Using the scaling question, for example, the counselor may ask the family to brainstorm ways to improve their current situation, rather than dwelling on problems. Asian families respond well to a future focus instead of dwelling in past failures (Hsu & Wang, 2011; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004).

Counseling goals should be meaningful and culturally appropriate for the client. While the counselor facilitates the solution dialogue, it is the clients who ultimately decide their goals (Corcoran, 2000). SFBT family counselors explore and build on cultural strengths and resources that an Asian family may have and further convey respect for the client family’s worldview (Berg, 1994; M. Y. Lee, 2003). As previously mentioned, incorporating the different worldviews of multigenerational families can be challenging for counselors. Relationship and outcomes questions (Guterman, 2006; Hsu & Wang, 2011; O’Connell, 2005) can assist a family in creating an agreed-upon goal that will sustain family harmony, while respecting their cultural worldview (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). Questions such as, “If counseling is working for you, how will your family know that things are getting better?” or “How will your relationship with your father be different?” and “If your grandfather felt respected, how would you know?” can draw on clients’ perceptions to create solutions that fit in their sociocultural context.

Clients’ strengths and resources can be identified through the use of exception questions and discussion that amplifies those exceptions (Berg & Jaya, 1993; Guterman, 2006). SFBT family counselors strategically use these tools to help the family acknowledge instances that frequently go unnoticed but are cultural strengths (de Shazer, 1985; Guterman, 2006; O’Connell, 2005). For example, exception questions that are focused on acculturation dissonance include, “What was a time when your parents supported your decision and you did not expect it?” and following this by asking, “What do you believe was different about this time?” The goal of these questions also highlights observable behaviors, helping the family counselor to continue learning about the client’s culture in action. U.S. culture often demonstrates care and love through affection (e.g., hugs and kisses), and members of this culture are explicit in showing this affection. However, East Asian culture sees hard work and providing for the family (e.g., financial support) as a showing care (Ng, 1999). Using exception questions and relationship questions can help clients acknowledge family member’s contributions to the well-being of the family in a culturally appropriate way.

A Case Example: The Ng Family

The following section will illustrates the use of solution-focused counseling with a Chinese American family who sought counseling through a referral from friends. The Ng family (names have been modified to protect the family members’ identities) sought help to manage the behaviors of Brian, the 16-year-old son. Initially, the Ng family was reluctant to participate in answering many of the assessment questions, in part due to not having proficiency in the English language, their uncertain immigration status, and a degree of distrust of outsiders.

The family counselor used several strategies to begin building trust with the Ng family. First, the counselor communicated understanding through normalizing the family’s anxiety and clarified the notion of confidentiality with the family. Second, the counselor commended the family for their courage to seek counseling help, even though it may have risked shaming the family name (C. Chang & Myers, 1997; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). Third, the counselor reframed the family’s help-seeking behavior as one in which the family is putting effort into restoring harmony in the family. The counselor also offered the family the option of interpretation services, which the family subsequently declined, though they were thankful for the gesture.

Family members who presented in the first session were Mr. Ng (grandfather, 71), Mrs. Ng (grandmother, 70), Edward (father, 42), Mei (mother, 39), and Brian (son, 16). From the ethnocultural assessment, the counselor learned that the family had immigrated to the United States approximately 8 years ago from Hong Kong to a South-Eastern metropolitan city but had yet to attain citizenship. It was through Edward’s work that the family was given residence status, but the application process for citizenship had been slow. The adjustment to the United States had been a difficult one for the whole family, particularly because the city where they lived had a very small Asian population. The family shared that they maintained many of their cultural practices, such as the types of food eaten, speaking Cantonese at home, and observing the cultural celebrations and holidays (e.g., Chinese New Year, Autumn Moon Festival).

The initial session began with the family counselor inviting every member of the family to describe the presenting complaint. Edward, taking on the traditional role of the leader of the family, began to describe the situation. The family relationship was described as conflictual, particularly between Brian and his parents, ever since Brian began attending high school. The family counselor learned that Brian became depressed when he learned that the family was immigrating, but that he later began to embrace the U.S. American culture. While the grandparents and parents were relieved that Brian was no longer sad, they became worried when he began to dismiss his cultural heritage. As Brian sat quietly in the session, Mei complained about his disrespectful behavior toward the grandparents, saying “He would only speak English at home, despite us telling him to speak Cantonese with his elders. He also has a terrible temper and neglects his school work.” Mei also shared her concern about the grandmother’s complaints of frequent headaches and weariness. Neither of the grandparents were able to communicate in English, so Edward and Mei took turns translating their concerns. The grandparents were relatively silent in the session but stated that they were present in counseling to support the family.

There are several important pieces of cultural information shared that the family counselor needed to keep in mind. First, academic success is important for Asian American families because it is related to family honor (Yagi & Oh, 1995). Asian American parents may place a higher level of expectations on their children to achieve academically compared to U.S. American parents in general (Hu & Chen, 1999). Neglecting schoolwork runs counter to the hardworking mentality of a Chinese family. The family counselor determined it was important to take time to explore whether Brian’s dislike of school was related to difficulty with understanding the material or was a rebellious expression against his family’s culture. Additionally, Brian’s level of acculturation seemed to be consistent with literature findings that children often assimilate faster than older adults (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004; Ng, 1999; Wong et al., 2011). The acculturation gap has been a source of stressors in many Asian immigrant families, particularly between parent and child (C. Chang & Myers, 1997; Juang et al., 2012; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004; R. M. Lee et al., 2000). Many families are unaware of the acculturation gap, so the family counselor determined that it would be helpful to educate the family about this concept. The counselor used a solution-focused dialogue to assess the Ng family’s cultural strengths and develop a goal, in order to facilitate solutions for the problems the family was experiencing.

Counselor:

(Using a variation of a “miracle question” to envision the goal of counseling treatment.) Let us suppose that your family finds counseling helpful, and every member here has contributed to the well-being of the whole family. How will you know that things have gotten better? What is the first thing you will notice that tells you that the family is different? How may I know that Brian’s relationship with grandpa and grandma is different?

Edwards:

I would feel less stressed and have to worry less about Brian’s behavior. I think there will be less shouting and fighting.

Mei:

Yes, I think that Brian will be better behaved and will be more respectful in the house.

Counselor:

So, there would be less fighting, less stress, and more respect, yes? What would you like to see instead of the fighting and disrespect? What behaviors will give you a clue that things are better? (It is not unusual for clients to describe their goals in terms of the absence of the problem, but the counselor should steer the conversation towards observable and measurable behaviors that characterize the presence of solutions instead.)

Mei:

Everyone will be at the dinner table eating and talking about pleasant things. They would say that our son shows good manners by greeting everyone and speaking Cantonese to his grandparents.

Grandma (as translated by Mei):

I would like to see Brian happy, smiling more, and talking to me and grandpa.

Disagreements about language and lifestyle preferences are indicators of an acculturation gap in this family. The family counselor can assist the family in focusing on small and specific behavior changes, instead of letting the family debate about ideas of cultural values. Here, the counselor will turn the focus to discussing possible small changes.

Counselor:

If Brian speaks Cantonese at home, greets everyone, and does all those things that you listed, how would that make a difference to the family?

Mei:

That would be very good and tell us that he cares about his family.

Counselor:

So, by being respectful and caring about the family, what would your relationship with Brian look like?

Mei:

I don’t know…(pauses)

Edward:

I think I will feel like I would be more attentive to his needs. But, the problem is that he just doesn’t listen. On top of that he is neglecting his schoolwork.

Edward shifted back towards a problem-focused dialogue, but it is more helpful to redirect the family toward a solution-oriented dialogue. At this point in the session, Brian remained silent and was visibly upset. He was seated far from the rest of the family, crossing his arms and staring at the floor. The SFBT family counselor needed him to be part of the conversation so that he could contribute to the solution-development process. The counselor invited Brian into the conversation.

Counselor:

Brian, you’ve been listening to your family for a while. It sounds to me as if your family is very caring about your well-being. What do you think will be different if things have gotten better? What would that look like?

Reframing the family’s complaint about Brian as concern seemed to calm Brian down, as seen in his shift into a more relaxed posture.

Brian:

[Sighs heavily] I think a good day is when everyone just relaxes and stops worrying about me. I don’t need them to get on my case about school and life. I just want to be free to do whatever I want.

Counselor:

What would your family be doing instead? How would you be feeling? (Trying to identify more concrete, observable behaviors.)

Brian:

I’m not sure, my mom would probably be less naggy and just talk to me normally, and my dad will be less uptight and will be able to concentrate on his work. I will probably feel happier.

Counselor:

(Using an exception question to find past success and strengths.) When was the last time when you saw your parents relaxed, and a time when you were happy?

Brian:

(pauses to think) I would say probably when we were all still back in Hong Kong. I was able to go out and be with my friends, and my parents were much less stressed and focused on me.

Counselor:

What’s different between now and then?

Brian:

My parents and grandparents had a lot more things to do. They would be with relatives and friends. I felt freer, and I could hang out with my friends. Everyone just seemed happier.

Counselor:

Anything else?

Brian:

Well, I was talking more with my parents about my day at school, and we understood each other well. It’s just moving to a new country, here in the U.S., I think I’m so much more used to speaking English and doing the stuff that kids do here. I mean I was able to change, I don’t understand why my parents still want me to stick with their old way of doing things. They should be adapting like I did.

Counselor:

Sounds like there is a disagreement about lifestyle preferences between you and your family. Do you know anybody at school who is dealing with something similar?

Brian:

Yeah, I think Ben is also dealing with stuff. He’s from Saudi-Arabia, and just recently moved here. We’ve been talking a lot lately, because I think I know some of the things he’s going through.

Counselor:

Seems like you are able to identify with Ben on some of the challenges of adapting to a new country. What advice would you give Ben, since you seem to be much further along in this process? (Relationship question.)

The manner in which this question was presented by the counselor could bring up potential solutions but can also be risky, as clients can take this opportunity to blame family members or to vent. Fortunately, Brian’s description was closer to the former.

Brian:

I would probably tell him to know how to behave in school and stuff like that. Like, he would have to know how he acts at home is different than for U.S. kids. But he should still keep some of his culture when he’s with family, because I think it’s pretty cool to be able to speak in different languages, and also his parents won’t nag him about it.

Counselor:

So, what I am hearing is that you would tell Ben to preserve his culture, but also know how to behave and act like a regular teen at school to fit in. You will also teach him about the U.S. American culture, so that he knows how to interact with the students and teachers. How will it look if you yourself follow this advice of knowing how to act at home and away from home?

Brian:

I think there will be less arguing at home.

Counselor:

Let’s say you behave at home in a way that will make sure there are fewer arguments, what would it look like? (Trying to be more concrete.)

Brian:

(pauses and thinks) Maybe…I would be greeting everyone in Cantonese in the morning or when I see them. Do my homework and acknowledge everyone at the dinner table before eating. It’s something that Chinese families do, I guess.

There are several things that the counselor tried to achieve in this last couple of dialogue exchanges. First, from an SFBT perspective, people initiate and maintain positive changes and are not dependent on external factors or causes for this. Next, negotiating small surface changes is viewed as a better way of intervening than debating about cultural preferences. Finally, the counselor continues to encourage the family to put their solutions in concrete and behavioral terms, so that they can recognize any visible changes that will happen.

Mei:

If he does those things, I think grandma and grandpa will be appreciate it a lot. I will also be less “on his case” if I know he is doing the things he’s supposed to do. (jokingly) But, what will I do now if I don’t focus on you?

Brian:

I don’t know. When we were back in Hong Kong, you would always visit relatives or friends.

Edward:

It is unfortunate that we live in this city where there are so few Chinese people. We really do feel isolated. I’m sure my parents feel that too.

Counselor:

What does the family do to remind yourself of Hong Kong?

Mei:

Sometimes we take turns calling our relatives, but that can get expensive, and we don’t get to talk for long.

Brian:

I could set up Skype (Internet video calling service). It’s free and my cousin uses it when we’re playing online games.

Mei:

You can do that?

Counselor:

That is very thoughtful of you, Brian, for coming up with a solution.

The remainder of the session focused on how the family could explore ways to create positive changes at home. The counselor ended the session by complimenting the strengths and resources the family shared in the session, and commended their courage for seeking help. The family attended three more sessions, before the counselor and the family mutually agreed to terminate therapy.

The Ng family’s case illustrates how SFBT helped an EAA family resolve their intergenerational conflicts. The first step the SFBT family counselor took was joining with the family. This included getting to know the family using an ethnocultural assessment tool, so that the counselor could learn about the family’s migration history and level of acculturation. Then, the counselor used a miracle question to help the family to begin formulating solutions. The counselor continually redirected the family to solution-oriented dialogues. Relationship questions and exception questions were used to highlight the cultural resources that the Ng family possessed. The counselor facilitated a therapeutic conversation that focused on small, surface, and attainable changes instead of addressing abstract factors like culture. These small positive changes will later become bigger changes and help the Ng family continue to generate solutions by themselves.

Conclusion

The number of ethnic minorities in the United States continues to increase annually, including the East Asian families who migrate to the United States seeking better job opportunities (Ng, 1999). Besides adjusting physically to the new environment, these immigrants also undergo the psychological adjustment of acculturation, which can bring a stark contrast of values between the U.S. and East Asian cultures (C. Chang & Meyers, 1997). Marriage and family practitioners working with this population need to attend to a variety of cultural elements when meeting with EAA clients.

The most common issue Asian immigrant families experience related to acculturation is parent–child conflicts, which is due to miscommunication and misunderstanding as a result of cultural dissonance (Juang et al., 2012; M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004; R. M. Lee et al., 2000). Researchers found that intergenerational acculturation dissonance is negatively correlated with parent–child relationship satisfaction (R. M. Lee et al., 2000; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001; Wong et al., 2011). Juang, Syed, Cookston, Wang, and Kim (2012) defined cultural dissonance as “a lack of shared cultural understanding between parents and child” (p. 20). Acculturation-based conflict also leads many Asian adolescents to experience mental health issues including low self-esteem, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and somatization (Juang et al., 2012). Research literature calls for family counselors to develop a knowledge base in different cultural groups (e.g., typical attitudes, communication, customs, etc.), so that they may practice in a culturally competent manner, but it can still be challenging to provide psychotherapy to clients with a cultural system that is in stark contrast to the U.S. culture.

SFBT is an approach that is particularly relevant and effective when working with clients of East Asian heritage that can bridge this gap (Corcoran, 2000). SFBT allows family counselors to practice in a culturally respectful manner without presuming to understand the client’s situation in its entirety. The SFBT approach attends to the multiple worldviews that are present with multigenerational immigrant families, while drawing on the client’s cultural strengths and resources in constructing solutions (M. Y. Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004). While there are currently few empirical counseling studies specific to the use of SFBT with East Asian families, support for applying the approach with these families is growing and the case presented in this article demonstrates practical aspects of its use with this population (Kim, 2008; Lee & Mjelde-Mossey, 2004).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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