Resurrecting Ancestral Familial Health: A Role for Psilocybin?

Abstract

Background: Research investigating high-dose, high-support psilocybin-assisted therapy reports significant psychological benefits, increased consciousness, and an enhanced socio-cognitive niche, resulting in empathy, connection, creativity, and overall well-being. These qualities lend themselves well to the bonding, emotional regulation, and attachment required for thriving family systems. Research from social scientist Darcia Narvaez on the evolved developmental niche (EDN) acts as a unified orientation to healthy familial systems that emphasizes the psychological, biophysical, and social benefits of following the human social mammal physiological design. Objective: In this narrative review, I outline the rationale for a curated family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy model that can bridge modern contradictory trends of birth, parenting, and family culture to realign with the EDN. This article supports a theoretical construction weaving high-dose psilocybin with family systems therapeutic interventions of family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence to customize a healing modality that supports the creative integration of EDN components within modern-day family systems. Methods: I examine the transdisciplinary evidence for psilocybin-assisted therapy and the complementary components, family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence. Additionally, I investigate the EDN and the respective research indicating the health and morality of adhering to these practices. Results: There is increasing evidence for the construction of a family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy that follows the values of the EDN. Conclusion: A family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy protocol may positively heal intergenerational trauma and resurrect elements of the EDN, supporting the cultural shift to align with the social mammalian physiological needs of the human being.

Keywords

psilocybin-assisted therapy evolved developmental niche family constellations somatic integration emotional intelligence

Introduction

A dominant paradigm in modern society is that humans are separate from nature, which creates chaos within ecological habitats as well as severs the connection with the internal human nature, inhibiting the instinctual drives of the social mammalian physiology that is essential in reviving relationships aligned with evolution (Narvaez, 2014; Vining et al., 2008). Humans, unique among mammals, increasingly doubt their ability to naturally birth, feed, and raise their young (Gaskin, 2011). This doubt, however, is a recent development. The modern industrialized world accounts for a small fraction of time, as 99% of human existence has occurred within small band hunter-gatherer tribes where physiological birth and natural child-rearing practices were the only survival options (Konner, 2008; Narvaez, 2010, 2024).

The basic yet profound human practices that include elements like natural birth, extended breastfeeding, mother–baby dyad constant connection, supportive alloparents, play, and nature immersion have been compiled by psychologist Narvaez (2014), who named these components the evolved developmental niche (EDN). Narvaez and additional researchers’ discovery of like-minded practices will be discussed in detail under the section Evolved Developmental Niche: An Ancestral Approach to Family Well-Being. With the knowledge of how human bodies are designed to develop socially, it is essential to investigate the impact of conflicting parenting and communal practices prominent in mainstream society. Additionally, it is essential to construct practical and potent family systems healing protocols that can aid in both the resolution of mood disorders and revive the remembrance of the social mammalian ways of living together. Importantly, contemporary science is not only validating but also integrating with ancestral wisdom, accessing both the components of the EDN and the ancient healing potential of intentional psilocybin ingestion, which have both supported humanity's life and evolution for 300,000 years (Arce & Winkelman, 2021; Konner, 2008).

Psilocybin research is a burgeoning field, and early clinical trials show promising results for many treatment-resistant disorders (Van Amsterdam & Van Den Brink, 2022). Applying these results to familial health is a novel approach in psychedelic studies. The proposed family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy protocol, is a theoretical construction that combines high-dose, high-support psilocybin sessions with education and therapy on family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence to provide an opportune position for families to revive elements from the EDN, the physiological blueprint of healthy family and communal systems.

Family Mental Illness as a Result of Artificial Interventions

While modern ways of life may offer more convenience, they frequently contradict evolution, as noted by trends in birthing, parenting, child-rearing, and family culture. High mortality rates, mental health disorders, separated families, and the epigenetic consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) all confirm that the current mainstream cultural norms are degenerative (Gunja et al., 2023; Yehuda & Lehrner, 2018). Exploring the intimate passages of birth and parenting is innately tender; however, tracking the trends and noting the repercussions is essential to creating pathways that recognize humans as social mammals with inherent design. Medicalized birth is an example of how meddling with nature can lead to undesired consequences.

Elective interventions during labor include procedures like inductions, epidurals, and cesareans (Tracy et al., 2007). While these interventions may provide pain relief or the confirmation of an exact due date, the side effects can be debilitating and even fatal. The United States has the highest infant and maternal mortality rate out of any other wealthy nation (Gunja et al., 2023). With the overmedicalization of birth as a contributor (Lang & King, 2008; Simpson & Thorman, 2005), it is essential to assess the negative consequences of modern interventions. For example, the United States has a cesarean rate of 31%, while only 10% are medically necessary (Betrán et al., 2015; CDC, 2021). Elective cesarean surgery increases life-threatening complications for the mother and baby by exposing both to elements that create infection, hemorrhage, and surgical injuries (Rodriguez, 2020). Additionally, over 60% of mothers chose epidurals, with many not informed of the potential risks, including the likelihood of maternal hypertension, worsening fetal heart rate, and an increased chance of cesarean surgery (Ghidini et al., 2023; Harkins et al., 2010).

Institutionalized birth interrupts the physiological design of the mother–baby dyad, leading to possible life-threatening consequences and a greater risk of birth trauma, resulting in mental health challenges (Dekel et al., 2019; Molloy et al., 2021). One in five mothers’ lives with a mental health condition (Maternal et al. | AHA, 2023) and systematic racism increases the impact for Black mothers’ experience, with 40% suffering from mood disorders (MMHLA, 2023). Perinatal and postpartum depression also impacts 5–10% of fathers/coparents, diminishing personal health and the ability to support mother and baby (Darwin et al., 2021). Children are also increasingly impacted by mental illness, with 40% meeting the criteria for mental health disorders by the age of 18 (Shim et al., 2022).

Modern interventions that disrupt physiological processes impact quality of life. Additionally, the lack of familial support evidenced by the United States as the only wealthy nation without federal maternity leave, perpetuates the trend of struggling families. Twenty-five percent of women feel forced to return to work in as little as 2 weeks of giving birth (Froese, 2023), and 55% return in the first few months postpartum (Falletta et al., 2020). This early separation is highly unnatural for the social mammalian design and creates toxic levels of stress and emotional challenges for mother and baby, contributing to poor bonding, breast feeding challenges, and in some cases failure to thrive (Abdillah, 2022; Bergman, 2019; Narvaez & Bradshaw, 2023). Separation increases for most families as the months and years go on as many young children are enrolled in nursery and schooling programs from an early age (Herbst, 2022), contributing to the average family spending only 37 min of quality time together on weekdays and only 5 hr together a week (Renner, 2022a, 2022b). The lack of connection significantly impacts bonding, attachment, and a sense of safety which can create limiting beliefs and impairments in brain function in the child (Jerud, 2024).

Modern-day challenges are not the only issue parents face when raising healthy children. Research on epigenetics and intergenerational trauma highlights the importance for parents to understand how patterns of disease, mental illness, and adversity transfer through the generations, creating a tragic chain of suffering (Wolynn, 2016; Yehuda & Bierer, 2009). Epigenetic research shows how external stimuli, like relationships and environment, impact genetic expression by turning some genes on and silencing others (Bjorklund, 2006; Lehrner & Yehuda, 2018). It has been found that the quality of emotion, thoughts, and beliefs of the mother have a profound impact on the epigenetic expressions of a gestating baby as well as the infant and child postbirth (Lipton, 2001; Wu et al., 2022; Yehuda & Lehrner, 2018).

Additionally, the quality of relationships and home environment have been found exceptionally important as a predictor of future health. Research on ACEs shows that violence, neglect, and abuse in the home alters a child's DNA, aging them prematurely by 7–10 years while making them much more susceptible to mental disorders, chronic health problems, and shorter life span (Felitti et al., 1998). The following elements of the EDN have proven beneficial in creating more resilience and reducing the negative impact of ACEs (Tarsha & Narvaez, 2022).

The EDN: An Ancestral Approach to Family Well-Being

Compared to other mammalian species humans are born prematurely, with only 25% of the brain developed (Narvaez, 2014). The human newborn prematurity creates a heightened sensitivity to the influence of early life experiences. The critical early development time is interrupted in contemporary society, impacting humans’ epigenetic response and social and moral development (Narvaez, 2014, 2024). Every animal creates a nest for their offspring, and the young are kept until they reach maturation and are deemed capable of surviving independently (Gottlieb, 1998; Narváez et al., 2012). Fortunately, humans, too, have a nest. The EDN, also referred to as the ancestral evolved nest, is the compilation of the behaviors and traditions humans practiced with their young to ensure survival and optimal development. These components include natural perinatal and birthing experiences, on-request breastfeeding for 2–5 years, positive and constant moving touch, a positive social climate, self-directed play, multiple responsive adult caregivers, connection to nature, and earth-based healing practices (Narvaez & Bradshaw, 2023).

The ancestral evolved nest is a product of extensive research by psychologist Darcia Narvaez, a distinguished figure in her field who was recently named one of the top 2% of scientists worldwide (Ioannidis et al., 2019). Her expertise lies within the interdisciplinary field of moral development psychology, which integrates anthropological and neurobiological theory with research in cognitive and developmental sciences (Narvaez, 2013). The ancestral evolved nest is not a mere theory, but a concept deeply rooted in the research and lived experiences of anthropologists Ingold (1999, 1988a b), Marshall (1979), Shostak (1981), and Thomas (1989).

Additionally, Narvaez (2014) builds upon the work of Konner (2008), who constructed the first “hunter-gatherer childhood model.” Since the development of the EDN, Narvaez and her team have conducted numerous studies investigating the components of the evolved nest on child wellbeing, moral development, family flourishing, and resiliency (Narvaez, 2013, 2014; Narvaez et al., 2012, 2021). Recent research indicates that following the elements of the evolved nest safeguard the effects of ACEs (Tarsha & Narváez, 2022). Narvaez (2013) encourages the collective remembrance of humanity's physiological design and advocates for ancestral parenting practices, community involvement, and cautious care in preparing for pregnancy, childbirth, and postnatal parenting.

The orientation that many of the world's problems stem from human disconnection from physiological needs is supported by other researchers and movement leaders. Traditional midwife and postpartum educator Rachelle Seliga (2020a,b, 2024) has collected research on postpartum traditions from around the globe and found that they are nearly identical because they are based on the physiologic necessities of both the mother and the baby. Her work discusses the need for an uninterrupted natural birth, constant mother–baby contact, a lay-in period of several weeks, warming foods, body care, and communal support to tend to mother and baby. Likewise, the research of Liedloff (1986), who spent two and a half years living among aboriginal tribes in the rainforest of Venezuela, created the continuum concept, a collection of primal and universal experiences necessary for evolution. These include natural birth, extended breastfeeding, cosleeping, in-arms constant contact for the first several months of life, responsive care when a baby cries, and unconditional love (Liedloff, 1986). Indigenous mother and scholar Leanne Betasamosake Simpson (2011) states that the Nishnaabeg tradition approaches birth as a ceremony that honors the natural process. Additionally, gentle parenting and prolonged attachment of cosleeping, responsiveness to needs, extended breastfeeding, and holding the values of unconditional love, honesty, and respect contribute to the belief that gentle parenting creates gentle leaders (Simpson, 2011, pp. 122–128).

Transitioning from contemporary childrearing practices to the ancestral evolved nest is not just a concept but an evolutionary model. While it may require preliminary work to make this cultural shift to sustainable evolutionary roots, the benefits are significant. Psilocybin therapy, combined with family therapeutic modalities like family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence, can act within the healing component of the ancestral evolved nest. This can help resolve intergenerational trauma, establish a healthy connection between mothers and children, inspire community cooperative action, increase connection to nature and play, and promote creative solutions to the collective culture's unsupportive institutionalized practices toward familial health.

A Therapeutic Rationale for a Family-Centered Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy Protocol

Psilocybin, the hallucinogenic compound in psychedelic mushrooms, is a promising intervention for treatment-resistant mental health disorders (Carhart-Harris & Goodwin, 2017). Psychological benefits include a significant reduction in depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and addiction (Corrigan et al., 2021; MacCallum et al., 2022). A systematic review of published research scanning for depressive disorders signifies that 79.2% of 423 individuals within 19 studies experienced a significant reduction in symptoms and diagnosis after psilocybin treatment (Rucker et al., 2016). Additionally, another systematic review of multiple studies targeting a variety of mental health conditions showed psilocybin effective at significantly reducing symptoms and, in many cases, complete remission from treatment-resistant disorders (Van Amsterdam & Van Den Brink, 2022). The effectiveness of psilocybin-assisted therapy is promising, and because the protocol is vastly different from daily medication, it can benefit those who want to avoid pharmaceutical dependency, which may be of particular interest to a population of breastfeeding mothers (Jairaj & Rucker, 2022; Wilde, 2023).

Psilocybin, in combination with therapy, supports long-term mental health changes, including positive transformation in personality, belief structures, and attitudes (Corrigan et al., 2021). A recent study indicates that only two doses of psilocybin within a therapeutic container result in a 75% remission of moderate to severe depression, meaning the participants no longer meet the criteria for this diagnosis at a 12-month follow-up. Additionally, participants reported no adverse reactions to the psilocybin, and zero participants reported recreational use outside of the study, alluding to the dependent-free nature of the treatment (Gukasyan et al., 2022).

The Johns Hopkins Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research (Griffiths et al., 2017) created a model incorporating high-dose and high-support psilocybin that aided in participants obtaining optimal results. High-dose psilocybin is between 30 mg and 40 mg, and high-support includes preparation and integration sessions, including contemplative practices and somatic integration (Griffiths et al., 2017). High-dose psilocybin journeys occasion mystical experiences, which significantly increases the chances of participants having life-changing experiences that reduce trauma and mental illness symptoms (Griffiths et al., 2008, 2017). Because one to three high-dose sessions can result in up to 6–12 months of relief, psilocybin-assisted therapy may prove an essential intervention for postpartum mood disorders, a public health concern that impacts 10–20% of mothers (Jairaj & Rucker, 2022; Kaufman et al., 2022; Van Amsterdam & Van Den Brink, 2022).

Psilocybin has an impressive safety profile. Within the first 3 hr of ingestion, 66% of psilocybin is excreted from the body, and it is undetectable in urine after 24 hr (Johnson, 2021). Clinical trials have yet to test trace amounts of psilocybin within other bodily fluids, like breastmilk; however, studies breaking down the pharmacokinetics of psilocybin indicate complete elimination within 48 hr after administration (Jairaj & Rucker, 2022). Pharmacological intervention for postpartum depression and mood disorders requires consistent and ongoing medication that holds uncertainty and concern for the developing baby due to the immaturity of their liver, kidney, blood–brain barrier, and neurological systems (Fitelson et al., 2010). A mother undergoing psilocybin therapy can pump unexposed breastmilk prior to the session to provide nourishment for their infant for 48 hr, allowing the elimination of psilocybin from their body and reducing infant exposure to outside substances (Brown et al., 2017; Jairaj & Rucker, 2022). Additionally, psilocybin enhances humans’ sociocognitive niche, resulting in self-regulation, emotional processing, enhancement of social learning, cooperation, and reasoning (Arce & Winkelman, 2021). Applying these findings to aid in reviving the EDN holds great potential.

The amplification of the sociocognitive niche supports the potential for families and communities to reorient to a partnership mentality to raise children, adapt to modern-day problems, and increase oxytocin levels. Oxytocin, the bonding hormone, elicits a sense of connection, oneness, feelings of sacredness, and increased positive mood (Arce & Winkelman, 2021; Jairaj & Rucker, 2022; Mason et al., 2021). Even though clinical trials and academic research have yet to address psilocybin-assisted therapy for family care, thousands of parents have already begun treatment with legal and underground facilitators (Sherry, 2023). Private communities like Mothers on Mushrooms (Tee, 2023) and Mothers of the Mushrooms (De La Myco, 2024) are rapidly expanding, providing education and integration around micro (small dose) and macro (high dose) psilocybin use while sharing stories on how the partnership with psilocybin is enhancing their parenting. Mothers of the Mushrooms recently surveyed 300 psilocybin-using mothers. They found anecdotal reports of a significant increase in happiness, presence, intuition, emotional regulation, and connection (De La Myco, 2024). Couples are also embarking on the potency of the oxytocin-enhancing and perceptual-altering elements of psychedelic therapy to aid in connection, communication, and trust (Ducharme, 2023).

While additional research is needed to clarify risks and benefits, indigenous lineages have incorporated community members of every age and stage of life within ceremonial practices, including pregnant and breastfeeding mothers, children, and the elderly (Labate, 2011; Wilde, 2023). A decolonized lens on investigating psilocybin use for the healing potential of all is a worthy endeavor; however, moving cautiously and humbly is required as the tradition, dosing, and communal integration of these historical practices are nuanced and will take time for Western academics to fully understand (Celidwen et al., 2023; Virdi, 2021). In addition to the potency of high-dose psilocybin therapy, the considerations of supportive preparation and integration therapies tailored toward family systems are imperative.

Customizing the High-Dose, High-Support Protocol to Benefit Family Systems

The high support component of the psilocybin therapy protocol is essential in creating favorable outcomes (Griffiths et al., 2017). Adopting this method to benefit family systems inspires modifying the support structure to include elements of family constellations work, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence. Adding these modalities within the preparation and integration will likely support mothers, fathers, coparents, and extended family to harvest the insights from the high-dose journeys and apply them directly to their self-concept as a parent and the quality of their relationship with their children. Additionally, they will likely experience elevated awareness, aiding in conscious parenting and the construction of a positive epigenetic environment impacting the health and resiliency of all within the family.

Family constellation therapy is an approach that considers individuals as part of a transgenerational family system (Selenee, 2022). Developed by German psychotherapist Bert Hellinger (2003), with a particular influence and interest to heal those impacted by the Holocaust, family constellations therapy incorporates epigenetic research along with attachment theory to explain how the lives of those that come before hold impact on the experience of those that come after through inherited traumas and destructive family patterns of anxiety, depression, illness, and addiction. These patterns are believed to be unconsciously passed through the bloodline, creating entanglements that repeatedly play out until resolution occurs (Wolynn, 2016).

According to Hellinger (2001), healing the family system from the most devastating experiences of death, genocide, enslavement, colonization, forced separation, suicide, divorce, incest, abortion, and the like requires healing and restoration to the flow of love within the family constellation, known as the Order of Love.

Family constellation therapy is offered within a short-term group that recruits an individual to step in as a particular person within one's family system. The group is named a constellation, and the representatives of family members speak to the energetics and experiences of the family, often with surprising accuracy, offering a chance for the participant to entertain multiple perspectives of how and why conflictive experiences are embedded within the social system (Hellinger, 2003; Payne, 2012). Additionally, family constellation work can occur in a one-to-one session, with the participant gathering insights from sharing family experiences while the facilitator tracks emotional patterns (Selenee, 2022; Wolynn, 2016).

A systematic review of family constellations therapy deems it an effective intervention with significant mental health benefits (Hunger et al., 2014; Stiefel et al., 2002; Thege et al., 2021). Family constellation therapy creates a framework for understanding the intergenerational component of hidden dynamics that can be resurrected within the altered spaces of psilocybin-assisted therapy (Card et al., 2023). Additionally, the insights obtained during psilocybin sessions are paired with somatic integration and emotional intelligence practices within the high-support model. Developing a container for embodied practices and conscious parenting optimizes the chance for psilocybin-assisted therapy to create beneficial healing for families.

Trauma frequently causes dissociation, a disconnected and out-of-body experience (Krüger, 2019; Van Der Hart, 2021). A significant advantage of psilocybin-assisted therapy is the embodied experience of connection, and incorporating somatic integration with nervous system support is crucial to creating lasting change (Bathje et al., 2022; Vaid & Walker, 2022). Polyvagal theory, as discovered by Porges (1995), has become a dominant approach to working with various physical and mental health conditions by lowering the autonomic nervous system states that support fearful and threatening reactions. Because of unresolved trauma, the human body can remain in a state of fight or flight even when the perceived danger has passed, creating extended periods of anxiety and stress (Porges, 2001, 2022). Polyvagal support aims to boost the feelings of safety through connection, social engagement, and coregulation to repattern the nervous system and build capacity for regulation (Dana, 2016). Polyvagal theory is an essential contribution to psilocybin integration and a crucial intervention to breaking the cycle of intergenerational trauma as the infant's nervous system is patterned from the mother's arousal states and capacity to regulate (Porges, 1995; Kolacz & Porges, 2024).

Along with polyvagal exercises, other somatic integration practices include somatic experiencing and craniosacral therapy. Somatic experiencing is a method aimed at accessing procedural body memory of trauma (Levine et al., 2018; Levine, 2012). Through exercise and regulation, a discharge from the frozen energy in the nervous system, much like an animal in the wild, restores health and vitality (Levine et al., 2018; Payne et al., 2015). Craniosacral therapy is a gentle, hands-on approach to restoring the craniosacral system, which can be compromised due to injury, stress, and trauma. This approach supports cerebrospinal fluid to flow without restriction in the body, addressing the psycho-somatic chronic pain and disease that can accompany high-stress trauma (Upledger, 2008). Additionally, this approach eases physical, cognitive, and emotional distress. It has been included as a gentle support for alleviating trauma responses in the body that is particularly useful for mothers postpartum and infants (Castejón-Castejón et al., 2022; Stub et al., 2020). Somatic integration allows the healing components of psilocybin-assisted therapy to take root in the body and create long-lasting physiological and behavioral changes. Furthermore, the emphasis on developing and increasing the emotional intelligence within the mother, father, and coparent is essential to ensure the completion of intergenerational trauma patterns.

Conscious parenting involves parental awareness of the importance of the environment on the epigenetics that alters the cells of the children. It involves parents listening for emotional cues from their children, responding with intentional language, and regulating themselves so they can be a beacon of calm for the child (Lipton, 2024). To be a conscious parent, the adult must have emotional intelligence, the ability to accurately assess, express, perceive, and manage the emotions within self and others (Alzoubi & Aziz, 2021; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). An emotionally intelligent person can read social cues, increasing their ability to communicate and relate to others with awareness and empathy, all while staying connected to the management and regulation of their internal emotional landscape (Frothingham, 2024). An emotionally intelligent parent can offer the coregulation, deeper understanding, and empathetic response that creates an environment of love, respect, and safety, allowing the child to develop in greater alignment with the play and positive environment of the ancestral evolved nest (Narvaez & Bradshaw, 2023).

Discussion

Research on psilocybin in the West is still in its infancy. While clinical trials have focused on individual psychological benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy, no research has explored methods of treatment applicable to holistic family system wellness. The gap in research may likely be due to the early reemergence of psychedelic therapy (Trope et al., 2019).

Griffiths et al. (2017) discovered that a protocol incorporating high-dose and high-support psilocybin aided in participants obtaining optimal results. This protocol could be expanded upon to integrate modern-day family systems theory and modalities of family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence. Customizing care to target healing intergenerational trauma, increasing parent–child bonding and secure attachment, cultivating instinctual awareness, and increasing conscious parenting will likely contribute to greater joy, connection, creativity, and resiliency for the family system.

Parenting strain and lack of well-being are at an all-time high (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2020), evidenced by compounding maternal mental health disorders (Maternal Mental Health | AHA, 2023), an increase in domestic violence (Domestic Violence Services, Inc., 2023), a rise of divorce and family separation (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2017), and 40% of children meeting the criteria for mental health conditions by the age of 18 (Shim et al., 2022). With up to 60% of psychiatric disorders labeled treatment resistant it is a critical time to partner with the outstanding results of psilocybin-assisted therapy for the benefit of the family as the relationships and environment of the early years lay the foundation for life-long physical, psychological, social, and spiritual health (Howes et al., 2021; Narváez, 2014).

Safety Considerations

The favorable safety profile of psilocybin administered in therapeutic settings is well documented in healthy participants (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2021). However, more research is needed to confirm the safety for postpartum mothers and those participating need to adhere to the medical screening process ensuring no contraindicated pharmaceutical use or psychiatric disorders (Sarparast et al., 2022).

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

A limitation of this review is that much of the research on psilocybin-assisted therapy relates to the treatment of individuals with major depressive and anxiety disorders (Goldberg et al., 2020). While clinical trials indicate efficacy for a variety of treatment-resistant mental health conditions, there is no data present regarding psilocybin therapy in the context of familial health. There is an ethical need to expand future research to include a family-centered protocol and apply these findings to clinical trials to ensure education and harm reduction for the large population of parents and families seeking the psychological and relational benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy.

Conclusion

Establishing a family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy protocol while holding the EDN as the baseline of familial health offers a potential opportunity for families and society to transform as both the EDN and psilocybin therapy enhance the sociocognitive niche, leading to social bonding, resulting in an experience of oneness and connection to others (Jairaj & Rucker, 2022; Narvaez & Bradshaw, 2023). A family-centered psilocybin-assisted therapy protocol is worthy of further exploration as a potential healing modality for mental illness within the family system that severs the break in attachment and bonding between children and primary caregivers. Reconnection to the evolved nest with the partnership and support of psilocybin-assisted therapy, family constellations, somatic integration, and emotional intelligence creates a novel approach to healing the family system that may reorient the human species back into the internal nature of instinct and drive toward survival and health. The qualities of connection, social reasoning, sacredness, and regulation can ripple from the individual to the family and society, creating cultural change that supports a thriving life.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ashley Glowiak

References

Abdillah

(2022). The effect of maternal and child factors on stunting in children under five years in rural Indonesia. KnE Life Sciences, 7(2), 813–822. https://doi.org/10.18502/kls.v7i2.10382

Alzoubi

H. M.

Aziz

(2021). Does emotional intelligence contribute to quality of strategic decisions? The mediating role of open innovation. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(2), 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7020130

American

cademy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2017). Children and divorce.https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Children-and-Divorce-001.aspx

Arce

Winkelman

(2021). Psychedelics, sociality, and human evolution. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.729425

Bathje

G. J.

Majeski

Kudowor

(2022). Psychedelic integration: An analysis of the concept and its practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.824077

Bergman

(2019). Birth practices: Maternal-neonate separation as a source of toxic stress. Birth Defects Research, 111(15), 1087–1109. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdr2.1530

Betrán

A. P.

Torloni

M. R.

Zhang

J. J.

Gülmezoglu

A. M.

(2015). WHO statement on caesarean section rates. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 123(5), 667–670. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.13526

Bjorklund

D. F.

(2006). Mother knows best: Epigenetic inheritance, maternal effects, and the evolution of human intelligence. Developmental Review, 26(2), 213–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2006.02.007

Brown

Nicholas

C. R.

Cozzi

N. V.

Gassman

Cooper

K. M.

Müller

Thomas

Hetzel

Henriquez

K. M.

Ribaudo

A. S.

Hutson

P. R.

(2017). Pharmacokinetics of escalating doses of oral psilocybin in healthy adults. Clinical Pharmacokinectics, 56(12), 1543–1554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40262-017-0540-6

10.

Card

K. G.

Grewal

Closson

Martin

Baracaldo

Allison

Kruger

D. J.

Walsh

(2023). Therapeutic potential of psilocybin for treating psychological distress among survivors of adverse childhood experiences: Evidence on acceptability and potential efficacy of psilocybin use. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2023.2268640

11.

Carhart-Harris

Bolstridge

Rucker

Day

Erritzøe

Kaelen

Bloomfield

Rickard

J. A.

Forbes

Feilding

Taylor

Pilling

Curran

V. H.

Nutt

(2016). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: An open-label feasibility study. the Lancet. Psychiatry, 3(7), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(16)30065-7

12.

Carhart-Harris

Goodwin

G. M.

(2017). The therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs: Past, present, and future. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(11), 2105–2113. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.84

13.

Castejón-Castejón

Murcia-González

M. A.

Todri

Lena

Chillón-Martínez

(2022). Treatment of infant colic with craniosacral therapy. A randomized controlled trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 71, Article 102885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2022.102885

14.

Celidwen

Redvers

Githaiga

Calambás

Añaños

Chindoy

M. E.

Vitale

Rojas

J. N.

Mondragón

Rosalío

Y. V.

Sacbajá

(2023). Ethical principles of traditional indigenous medicine to guide western psychedelic research and practice. The Lancet Regional Health - Americas, 18, Article 100410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2022.100410

15.

Center for Disease Control. (2021). FastStats Births - Method of delivery. CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/delivery.htm

16.

Corrigan

A. E.

Burchill

Pelton

Marrocu

Mazzoleni

Shackshaft

(2021). Psilocybin: The magic medicine for depression? British Journal of Psychiatry Open, 7(S1), S165. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2021.456

17.

Dana

(2016). The polyvagal theory in therapy: Engaging the rhythm of regulation. American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-26630-000

18.

Darwin

Domoney

Iles

Bristow

Siew

Sethna

(2021). Assessing the mental health of fathers, other co-parents, and partners in the perinatal period: Mixed methods evidence synthesis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 585479. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.585479

19.

Davis

A. K.

Barrett

F. S.

May

D. G.

Cosimano

M. P.

Sepeda

N. D.

Johnson

M. W.

Finan

P. H.

Griffiths

R. R.

(2021). Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(5), 481. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285

20.

Dekel

Ein-Dor

Berman

Barsoumian

I. S.

Agarwal

Pitman

R. K.

(2019). Delivery mode is associated with maternal mental health following childbirth. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 22(6), 817–824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-019-00968-2

21.

De La Myco

(2024). Mothers of the Mushroom | Mama de la Myco. Mushwomb. https://www.mushwomb.love/mothersofthemushroom

22.

Ducharme

(2023). Psychedelics could revolutionize couples therapy. TIME. https://time.com/6262291/psychedelics-mdma-couples-therapy/

23.

DVS (2023). Children & domestic violence statistics. Retrieved December 17, 2023, from http://www.dvs-or.org/children-domestic-violence-statistics/

24.

Falletta

Abbruzzese

S. a. G.

Fischbein

Shura

Eng

A. L.

Alemagno

S. A.

(2020). Work reentry after childbirth: Predictors of self-rated health in month one among a sample of university faculty and staff. Safety and Health at Work, 11(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2019.12.006

25.

Felitti

V. J.

Anda

R. F.

Nordenberg

Williamson

D. F.

Spitz

A. M.

Edwards

V. J.

Koss

M. P.

Marks

J. S.

(1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8

26.

Fitelson

Kim

Baker

A. S.

Leight

(2010). Treatment of post-partum depression: A review of clinical, psychological and pharmacological options. International Journal of Women’s Health, 3, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.2147/ijwh.s6938

27.

Froese

(2023). Maternity leave in the United States: Facts you need to know. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/united-states-maternity-leave-facts#Maternity-leave-facts-in-the-United-States

28.

Frothingham

M. B.

(2024). Emotional Intelligence (EQ): Definition & examples. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/emotional-intelligence.html

29.

Gaskin

I. M.

(2011). Birth matters: A midwife’s manifesta. Pinter & Martin Publishers.

30.

Ghidini

Vanasche

Cacace

Fumagalli

Locatelli

(2023). Side effects from epidural analgesia in laboring women and risk of cesarean delivery. AJOG Global Reports, 4(1), 100297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xagr.2023.100297

31.

Goldberg

S. B.

Pace

B. T.

Nicholas

C. R.

Raison

C. L.

Hutson

P. R.

(2020). The experimental effects of psilocybin on symptoms of anxiety and depression: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 284, Article 112749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112749

32.

Gottlieb

(1998). Normally occurring environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity: From central dogma to probabilistic epigenesis. Psychological Review, 105(4), 792–802. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.105.4.792-802

33.

Griffiths

R. R.

Johnson

M. W.

Richards

W. A.

Richards

B. D.

Jesse

R. L.

MacLean

K. A.

Barrett

F. S.

Cosimano

M. P.

Klinedinst

M. A.

(2017). Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 32(1), 49–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117731279

34.

Griffiths

R. R.

Richards

W. A.

Johnson

M. W.

McCann

U. D.

Jesse

. (2008). Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22(6), 621–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881108094300

35.

Gukasyan

Davis

A. K.

Barrett

F. S.

Cosimano

M. P.

Sepeda

N. D.

Johnson

M. W.

Griffiths

R. R.

(2022). Efficacy and safety of psilocybin-assisted treatment for major depressive disorder: Prospective 12-month follow-up. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(2), 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811211073759

36.

Gunja

Gumas

Williams II

(2023). U.S. health care from a global perspective, 2022: Accelerating spending, worsening outcomes. The Commonwealth Fund. https://doi.org/10.26099/8ejy-yc74

37.

Harkins

Carvalho

Evers

Mehta

Riley

E. T.

(2010). Survey of the factors associated with a woman’s choice to have an epidural for labor analgesia. Anesthesiology Research and Practice, 4(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/356789

38.

Hellinger

(2001). Love’s own truths: Bonding and balancing in close relationships. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA5570498X

39.

Hellinger

(2003). To the heart of the matter: Brief therapies. Onlineshop Bert Hellinger.

40.

Herbst

C. M.

(2022). Child care in the United States: Markets, policy, and evidence. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 42(1), 255–304. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.22436

41.

Howes

Oliver D.

Thase

Michael E.

Pillinger

Toby

(2022). Treatment resistance in psychiatry: State of the art and new directions. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1), 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01200-3

42.

Hunger

Weinhold

Bornhäuser

Link

Schweitzer

(2014). Mid- and long-term effects of family constellation seminars in a general population sample: 8- and 12-month follow-up. Family Process, 54(2), 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12102

43.

Ingold

(1999). On the social relations of the hunter-gatherer band. In R. B. Lee & daly (Eds.), The Cambridge encyclopedia of hunter and gatherers (pp. 399–410). New York: Cambridge University Press.

44.

Ingold

Riches

Woodburn

(1988a). History, evolution and social change (Vol. 1). Berg.

45.

Ingold

Riches

Woodburn

(1988b). Property, power and ideology (Vol. 2). Berg.

46.

Ioannidis

J. P. A.

Baas

Klavans

Boyack

K. W.

(2019). A standardized citation metrics author database annotated for scientific field. PLoS Biology, 17(8), Article e3000384. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000384

47.

Jairaj

Rucker

(2022). Postpartum depression: A role for psychedelics? Journal of Psychopharmacology, 36(8), 920–931. https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811221093793

48.

Jerud

(2024). Parent-child separation, trauma, PTSD and recovery. Anxiety disorders and universal health care. https://www.anxiety.org/parent-child-separation-trauma-ptsd-and-recovery-in-children

49.

Johnson

(2021). Magic mushrooms: How long do they stay in your system? https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/how-long-do-shrooms-stay-in-your-system#how-long-in-the-system

50.

Kaufman

Carlini

S. V.

Deligiannidis

K. M.

(2022). Advances in pharmacotherapy for postpartum depression: A structured review of standard-of-care antidepressants and novel neuroactive steroid antidepressants. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 12, Article 204512532110658. https://doi.org/10.1177/20451253211065859

51.

Kolacz

Porges

S. W.

(2024). WAIMH handbook of infant and early childhood mental health: Biopsychosocial factors (Vol. 1, pp. 169–183). Springer International Publishing.

52.

Konner

(2008). The evolution of childhood: relationships, emotion, mind. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB08964993

53.

Krüger

(2019). Culture, trauma and dissociation: A broadening perspective for our field. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 21(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1675134

54.

Labate

B. C.

(2011). Consumption of ayahuasca by children and pregnant women: Medical controversies and religious perspectives. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 43(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2011.566498

55.

Lang

C. T.

King

J. C.

(2008). Maternal mortality in the United States. Baillière’s Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology/Baillière’s Best Practice and Research in Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 22(3), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2007.10.004

56.

Lehrner

Yehuda

(2018). Cultural trauma and epigenetic inheritance. Development and Psychopathology, 30(5), 1763–1777. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579418001153

57.

Levine

P. A.

(2012). In an unspoken voice: How the body releases trauma and restores goodness. North Atlantic Books.

58.

Levine

Sep

M. a. B.

Sylvae

(2018). Reintegrating fragmentation of the primitive self: Discussion of “somatic experiencing”. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 28(5), 620–628. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481885.2018.1506216

59.

Liedloff

(1986). The continuum concept: In search of happiness lost. Da Capo Press.

60.

Lipton

B. H.

(2001). Nature, nurture and human development. Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Health, 16(2), 167.

61.

Lipton

(2024). What is conscious parenting. Bruce H. Lipton, PhD. https://www.brucelipton.com/what-conscious-parenting/

62.

MacCallum

C. A.

L. A.

Pistawka

C. A.

Deol

J. K.

(2022). Therapeutic use of psilocybin: Practical considerations for dosing and administration. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1040217

63.

Marshall

(1976). The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Harvard University Press.

64.

Mason

N. L.

Kuypers

K. P. C.

Reckweg

Müller

Tse

D. H. Y.

Da Rios

Toennes

S. W.

Stiers

Feilding

Ramaekers

J. G.

(2021). Spontaneous and deliberate creative cognition during and after psilocybin exposure. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01335-5

65.

Maternal Mental Health | AHA. (2023). American Hospital Association. Retrieved December 17, 2023, from https://www.aha.org/maternal-mental-health

66.

Maternal Mental Health Leadership Alliance: MMHLA. (2023). Maternal Mental Health Leadership Alliance: MMHLA. Retrieved December 17, 2023, from https://www.mmhla.org/fact-sheets

67.

Molloy

Biggerstaff

Sidebotham

(2021). A phenomenological exploration of parenting after birth trauma: Mothers perceptions of the first year. Women and Birth (Print), 34(3), 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2020.03.004

68.

Narváez

(2010). The emotional foundations of high moral intelligence. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2010(129), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.276

69.

Narváez

(2013). The future of research in moral development and education. Journal of Moral Education, 42(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2012.757102

70.

Narváez

(2014). Neurobiology and the development of human morality: Evolution, culture, and wisdom. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB1833519X

71.

Narvaez

(2024). The evolved nest. The evolved nest. https://evolvednest.org/9-healing-practices-1

72.

Narvaez

Bradshaw

G. A.

(2023). The evolved nest: Nature’s way of raising children and creating connected communities. North Atlantic Books.

73.

Narváez

Gleason

T. R.

Tarsha

M. S.

Woodbury

Cheng

Wang

(2021). Sociomoral temperament: A mediator between wellbeing and social outcomes in young children. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.742199

74.

Narváez

Panksepp

Schore

A. N.

Gleason

T. R.

(2012). Evolution, early experience and human development. In Oxford University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755059.001.0001

75.

Nomaguchi

Kei

Milkie

Melissa A

(2020). Parenthood and well‐being: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 198–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.v82.1

76.

Payne

(2012). The healing of individuals, families & nations: Transgenerational healing & family constellations. Simon and Schuster.

77.

Payne

Levine

Crane-Godreau

M. A.

(2015). Somatic experiencing: Using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00093

78.

Porges

S. W.

(1995). Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology, 32(4), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb01213.x

79.

Porges

S. W.

(2001). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42(2), 123–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-8760(01)00162-3

80.

Porges

S. W.

(2022). Polyvagal theory: A science of safety. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 16, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2022.871227

81.

Renner

(2022a). American families spend just 37 min of quality time together per day, survey finds. Study Finds. https://studyfinds.org/american-families-spend-37-minutes-quality-time/

82.

Renner

(2022b). Modern family: Average parent spends just 5 h face-to-face with their kids per week! Study Finds. https://studyfinds.org/modern-family-average-parent-spends-just-5-hours-face-to-face-with-their-kids-per-week/

83.

Rodriguez

(2020). Unnecessary C-sections are a problem in the US. Will publicizing hospital rates change that? USA TODAY. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2020/12/21/the-joint-commission-report-cesarean-section-birth-rates/3943700001/

84.

Rucker

Jelen

L. A.

Flynn

S. K.

Frowde

Young

A. H.

(2016). Psychedelics in the treatment of unipolar mood disorders: A systematic review. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(12), 1220–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116679368

85.

Salovey

Mayer

J. D.

(1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185–211. https://doi.org/10.2190/dugg-p24e-52wk-6cdg

86.

Sarparast

Aryan

Thomas

Kelan

Malcolm

Benjamin

Stauffer

Christopher S.

(2022). Drug-drug interactions between psychiatric medications and MDMA or psilocybin: A systematic review. Psychopharmacology, 239(6), 1945–1976. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-022-06083-y

87.

Selenee

(2022). Connected fates, separate destinies: Using family constellations therapy to recover from inherited stories and trauma. Hay House, Inc.

88.

Seliga

(2020a). Aligning heart and mind for humankind’s evolution. Innate Traditions. https://www.innatetraditions.com/blog/aligning-heart-and-mind-for-humankind-s-evolution

89.

Seliga

(2020b). Interventions and birth: Understanding our physiologic design. Innate traditions. Retrieved April 8, 2024, from https://www.innatetraditions.com/about

90.

Seliga

(2024). Homepage. Innate Traditions. https://www.innatetraditions.com/

91.

Sherry

(2023). Stressed out, busy moms say microdosing mushrooms makes life easier and brighter. Researchers caution that they are ‘experimenting on themselves’ Colorado Public Radio. https://www.cpr.org/2022/08/16/moms-microdosing-mushrooms/

92.

Shim

Ruth

Szilagyi

Moira

Perrin

James M

. (2022). Epidemic rates of child and adolescent mental health disorders require an urgent response. Pediatrics, 149(5), 1. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-056611

93.

Shostak

(1981). Nisa: The life and words of !Kung woman. Vintage Books.

94.

Simpson

(2011). Dancing on our turtle’s back: Stories of Nishnaabeg re-creation, resurgence, and a new emergence. Arbeiter Ring Pub.

95.

Simpson

Thorman

(2005). Obstetric “conveniences”: Elective induction of labor, cesarean birth on demand, and other potentially unnecessary interventions. The Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing, 19(2), 134–144. https://journals.lww.com/jpnnjournal/abstract/2005/04000/obstetric__conveniences___elective_induction_of.10.aspx

96.

Stiefel

Harris

Zollmann

A. W. F.

(2002). Family constellation — a therapy beyond words. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 23(1), 38–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1467-8438.2002.tb00484.x

97.

Stub

Kiil

M. A.

Lie

Kristoffersen

A. E.

Weiß

Hervik

J. B.

Musial

(2020). Combining psychotherapy with craniosacral therapy for severe traumatized patients: A qualitative study from an outpatient clinic in Norway. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 49, Article 102320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102320

98.

Tarsha

Mary S.

Narvaez

Darcia

(2022). Effects of adverse childhood experience on physiological regulation are moderated by evolved developmental niche history. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 35(4), 488–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2021.1989419

99.

Tee

(2023). About. MomsOnMushrooms. https://www.momsonmushrooms.com/about

100.

Thege

B. K.

Petroll

Rivas

Scholtens

(2021). The effectiveness of family constellation therapy in improving mental health: A systematic review. Family Process, 60(2), 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12636

101.

Thomas

E M

(1989). The harmless people (rev.ed.). New York: Vintage

102.

Tracy

Sullivan

E. A.

Wang

Black

Tracy

(2007). Birth outcomes associated with interventions in labour amongst low risk women: A population-based study. Women and Birth (Print), 20(2), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2007.03.005

103.

Trope

Anderson

B. T.

Hooker

A. R.

Glick

Stauffer

Woolley

J. D.

(2019). Psychedelic-assisted group therapy: A systematic review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), 174–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1593559

104.

Upledger

(2008). CranioSacral therapy: What it is, how it works. North Atlantic Books.

105.

Vaid

Walker

(2022). Psychedelic psychotherapy: Building wholeness through connection. Global Advances in Health and Medicine, 11, Article 2164957X22108113. https://doi.org/10.1177/2164957x221081113

106.

Van Amsterdam

Van Den Brink

(2022). The therapeutic potential of psilocybin: A systematic review. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 21(6), 833–840. https://doi.org/10.1080/14740338.2022.2047929

107.

Van Der Hart

(2021). Trauma-related dissociation: An analysis of two conflicting models. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 5(4), Article 100210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100210

108.

Vining

Merrick

Price

(2008). The distinction between humans and nature: Human perceptions of connectedness to nature and elements of the natural and unnatural on JSTOR. Human Ecology Review, 15(1), 1–11.

109.

Virdi

(2021). Reexamining cultural beliefs around children and psychedelics. UniversityScientific.com. https://www.universityscientific.com/2021/02/10/reexamining-cultural-beliefs-around-children-and-psychedelics/

110.

Wilde

(2023). Psychedelic therapy for pregnant & breastfeeding mothers. Psychedelic Passage. https://www.psychedelicpassage.com/psychedelic-therapy-for-mothers-navigating-pregnancy-breastfeeding/

111.

Wolynn

(2016). It didn’t start with you: How inherited family trauma shapes who we are and how to end the cycle. https://openlibrary.org/books/OL27209353M/It_didn't_start_with_you

112.

Espinosa

Barnett

S. D.

Kapse

Quistorff

Lopez

Andescavage

Pradhan

Kapse

Henderson

Vézina

Wessel

Du Plessis

A. J.

Limperopoulos

(2022). Association of elevated maternal psychological distress, altered fetal brain, and offspring cognitive and social-emotional outcomes at 18 months. JAMA Network Open, 5(4), Article e229244. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.9244

113.

Yehuda

Bierer

L. M.

(2009). The relevance of epigenetics to PTSD: Implications for the DSM-V. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(5), 427–434. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20448

114.

Yehuda

Lehrner

(2018). Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: Putative role of epigenetic mechanisms. World Psychiatry, 17(3), 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20568