Abstract
Salespeople are increasingly required to navigate an international environment—having international customers or international peers. However, much remains to be learned about how salespeople are utilizing social media in an international context. This multimethod, multistudy design contributes to international sales research by showing how business-to-business (B2B) salespeople use social media whether they are in a multinational or local firm. With a social capital lens, the authors explore the importance of social media with regard to strengthening salespeople's internal and external connections in an international context. In Study 1, 131 B2B salespeople use social media to develop customer relations (i.e., external connections) to engage in positive publicity and social media advocacy, ultimately leading to better sales performance. Specifically, social media advocacy enhances sales performance only for salespeople in multinationals. In Study 2, with 23 qualitative interviews, the authors contextualize the findings of Study 1 by comparing social media use among salespeople in multinational and local firms. The basis of the exploration involves internal and external connections with the three dimensions of social capital: structural, relational, and cognitive. The authors demonstrate that internal connections with peers on social media allows for increased knowledge transfer and other benefits.
Keywords
[Social media] is an international issue. Fifty percent of the people who like my post are outside the country. All my colleagues worldwide who see the post are going to like it, and if someone from another country likes a post, [customer prospects] will see it too, so the post will reach the international audience.
—Sales representative (MNE-L7)
Social media is defined as “any social interaction-enhancing technology that can be deployed to generate content (e.g., blogs, microblogs, wikis) and develop networks (e.g., social networks, online communities)” (Agnihotri et al. 2012, p. 334). As the opening quote highlights, business-to-business (B2B) salespeople are often aware that social media use—which we define as the salesperson's utilization and integration of social media technology to perform their job (Agnihotri et al. 2016, p. 173)—provides the potential to generate positive outcomes and international connections. However, this knowledge has not yet extended into the international sales literature, where little remains known about effective social media use for B2B salespeople (Bocconcelli, Murmura, and Pagano 2018; see Figure 1 for details). This is an issue because social media is blurring international boundaries and having a pronounced impact on many different types of sales and marketing practices (Sheth 2020). Thus, the purpose of this research is to better understand how salespeople strategically use social media depending on their firm's degree of internationalization (i.e., multinational enterprise [MNE] vs. local).
Bridging Sales and International Research.
While limited, the international sales literature that exists focuses on how social media can improve the sales process (Bocconcelli, Cioppi, and Pagano 2017; Fraccastoro, Gabrielsson, and Pullins 2021) or how culturally intelligent social media use improves performance (Hazzam and Wilkins 2022). At the same time, the broader B2B sales literature suggests that social media has an impact on B2B selling (Ancillai et al. 2019; Tiwary et al. 2021). On a granular level, social media provides an outlet to sell adaptively and obtain market insights (e.g., Kalra, Briggs, and Schrock 2023). Its usage has been shown to help salespeople to interact with customers (e.g., Ogilvie et al. 2018), which means that they can develop customer relations, defined as the “the extent to which a salesperson has access to relevant decision makers with the customer's organization” (Böhm et al. 2020, p. 184). To illustrate, recent research (e.g., Itani, Badrinarayanan, and Rangarajan 2023; Schendzielarz, Alavi, and Guba 2022) suggests that B2B salespeople can use social media to acquire external resources and customers, or social capital, “a concerted investment in social relations with expected returns” (Lin 1999, p. 30). Collectively, these findings imply that social media should be useful in an international B2B setting, but the complexity of the international business environment and lack of empirical research makes guidance difficult.
This gap is illustrative of a broader phenomenon—that is, there is a general lack of knowledge in the understanding of behaviors and practices for salespeople in an international context (Baldauf and Lee 2011; Schrock et al. 2018). This is likely because of the many factors that complicate the international business landscape (i.e., cultural diversity, geographic distances, supply chain issues, and ongoing political difficulties). Social media heightens these complexities, as it is effectively borderless, yet we live in a world with distinct borders, cultures, and business practices (Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Zeriti 2020). Given that B2B salespeople already struggle with social media (e.g., Bill, Feurer, and Klarmann 2020), it is plausible to assume that key differences between MNEs and local firms, including vastly different customer bases, resource levels, and strategic focuses (Bocconcelli, Cioppi, and Pagano 2017), will impact how B2B salespeople should adopt and leverage social media (Fraccastoro, Gabrielsson, and Pullins 2021). In addition, there have been calls to better understand how social media can be used strategically for various marketing-mix activities in an international context (Bocconcelli, Murmura, and Pagano 2018). To help remedy these deficiencies, we propose the following research questions:
Given the novelty and timeliness of the topic, we employ a mixed-method, multistudy design to obtain a robust understanding of our research questions. We utilize social capital theory as an overarching theory to bridge literature streams between salespeople's social media use and international sales/business literature. The social capital lens allows us to focus on both external (i.e., customers) and internal (i.e., peers) connections (Adler and Kwon 2002) and to identify how they are leveraged in an international context. With a sample of 131 B2B salespeople operating in France, the quantitative study (Study 1) suggests that social media use allows salespeople to gain an in-depth knowledge of their customer base and develop customer relations. Customer relations can be considered an “investment” in the salesperson's external connections (i.e., a form of social capital) (Böhm et al. 2020). External connections are then leveraged with positive publicity—defined as the extent to which salespeople promote their firm, brand, service, and product portfolio (see social media marketing for salespeople; Schmitt, Casenave, and Pallud 2021b). In addition, salespeople also leverage customer relations with social media advocacy—defined as the extent to which the salesperson advocates for colleagues and peers to effectively use social media (see promotion work; Schmitt, Casenave, and Pallud 2021a). We also propose that the degree of firm internationalization (i.e., whether they sell for an MNE or local firm) will moderate the impacts of these behaviors on salesperson performance.
In our qualitative study (Study 2), we extend the results of Study 1 by conducting interviews with 23 B2B salespeople who have international sales experience. In this study, we broaden our view on social capital to include the salesperson's internal and external connections in an international context. We do this with an emphasis on the structural, cognitive, and relational dimensions of social capital (e.g., Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998). Our ultimate purpose is to further clarify social media use differences between B2B salespeople depending on whether they sell for an MNE or local firm.
Our research offers several meaningful contributions to the international sales literature. We extend literature on social media use by examining the impact of the degree of firm internationalization on various behaviors. Specifically, our quantitative results indicate that all B2B salespeople should use social media to develop customer relations and leverage positive publicity. However, we identify a crucial boundary condition, as salespeople in MNEs are better suited to take advantage of social media advocacy and reap sales performance benefits. Our qualitative findings provide additional insights into this phenomenon by highlighting that an international internal network allows for improved knowledge transfer and skill sharing. Next, we add to recent sales literature on social media and social capital to advance the idea of an “international social capital” (see Urzelai and Puig 2019) that can be developed with effective social media use. Finally, we extend international sales and marketing literature by highlighting how social media use plays a strategic role in MNEs through knowledge transfer mechanisms.
Literature Review and Theoretical Background
Social Media Use in Sales
Social media use in B2B sales has grown rapidly. Because of this, the topic has attracted scholarly attention (see Cartwright, Liu, and Raddats 2021). Extant research emphasizes the benefits of salesperson social media use in terms of business performance (Bowen et al. 2021; Ogilvie et al. 2018) and customer satisfaction (Agnihotri et al. 2016). However, the beneficial impacts are contingent on three specific behaviors (Terho, Giovannetti, and Cardinali 2022). First, salespeople gain market insights by collecting information on their customers and on competitors’ activities (Kalra et al. 2023). Second, salespeople leverage social media to deepen engagement with their customers by sharing personalized and targeted content (Schendzielarz, Alavi, and Guba 2022), whereas inside B2B salespeople rely on social media to digitally engage with their customers (Chaker et al. 2022). Third, salespeople use social media to connect to improve prospecting (Bowen et al. 2021).
Social media can also be used by B2B salespeople internally. For example, enterprise social media acknowledges that social media use can strengthen internal connections (Weber and Shi 2016). Enterprise social media encourages connections between employees in two ways: by enabling collaborative encounters and allowing the connections to be visible (Archer-Brown and Kietzmann 2018). Furthermore, social media use allows salespeople to connect to others within the firm to diffuse best practices (Schmitt, Casenave, and Pallud 2021b) and to learn from their peers to improve their selling abilities (Bowen et al. 2021). While valuable, much of the extant research does not take the degree of internationalization into consideration, which is a crucial gap. Thus, we turn our focus onto this area.
Key Differences Between MNEs and Local Firms
There are key differences between MNEs and local firms. Extant literature has identified strategic advantages for MNEs, including firm size, higher levels of innovativeness, greater financial resources, and greater managerial and marketing capabilities (Papanastassiou, Pearce, and Zanfei 2020). In addition, MNEs tend to have more developed internal networks than local firms (Reiche, Harzing, and Kraimer 2009). Consequently, salespeople within MNEs can benefit from a diverse pool of international knowledge. However, it must be noted that local firms also have advantages in terms of relevance and greater familiarity with local market conditions/customers (Nachum 2010).
As it relates to social media, there are also differences between MNEs and local firms. Many of these differences are a result of the firm structure and their business environment. For example, MNEs can better leverage information sharing between international units (e.g., Mudambi and Swift 2011). Social media serves as a crucial information gathering tool, and MNEs typically have a deeper understanding of social media metrics and analytics (Gao et al. 2018). Furthermore, enterprise social media use within MNEs allows for greater potential internal information flows and knowledge transfer capacities (Paniagua, Korzynski, and Mas-Tur 2017). However, because their operations transcend national borders (Berthon et al. 2012), MNEs can struggle when sharing corporate messages and adapting content to local markets (Kim, Moon, and Iacobucci 2019).
Inversely, within local firms, social media use offers distinct benefits for outreach and collaboration with customers (Wang, Pauleen, and Zhang 2016). Social media is advantageous for local firms seeking to identify business opportunities or increase customer engagement (Fraccastoro, Gabrielsson, and Pullins 2021). While local firms can vary in size, they are likely to be more “entrepreneurial” and reactive to marketplace events (Bocconcelli, Cioppi, and Pagano 2017; Child, Karmowska, and Shenkar 2022). In addition, because of communication and cooperation possibilities (i.e., with customers or other firms; Michaelidou, Theofania, and Christodoulides 2011; Wang, Pauleen, and Zhang 2016), local firms can overcome limitations (i.e., localization) to access new resources. Taken together, this means that social media use should have varying impacts on salespeople, depending on whether they work in an MNE or a local firm (Brink 2017). Because of these differences, it is also evident that different types of social relationships will occur within each type of firm. Thus, we turn our attention to social capital theory.
Social Capital Theory
Among the various conceptualizations of social capital, an overarching theme is that social relationships help shape individual's access to knowledge and opportunities (Lin 1999). Social capital has internal dimensions (i.e., among coworkers) and external dimensions (i.e., among customers) and, in general, provides guidance for how individuals interact with others (Adler and Kwon 2002).
Other scholars (e.g., Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998) emphasize the structural, relational, and cognitive dimensions of social capital. The structural dimension of social capital refers to “the system or pattern of linkages between people” (Hughes, Le Bon, and Rapp 2013, p. 93). In other words, it refers to the ties and configurations that facilitate the flow of information among individuals (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998). In our context, the structural view pertains to salespeople's international ties, including how they reach their international prospects or customers and interact with their peers and managers. Because social media can be a tool for prospecting and fostering internal connections, we anticipate a link between the salesperson's use of social media and the development of structural social capital at the international level.
The relational dimension refers to “the interpersonal relationships that are established and maintained through interactions between individuals and the value that is created and leveraged through these relationships” (Hughes, Le Bon, and Rapp 2013, p. 93). These relationships increase the sharing of common objectives and provide access to valuable knowledge (Adler and Kwon 2002). Because effective social media use can help strengthen relationships and enhance internal connections, we expect the development of relational social capital, but in a more pronounced way for salespeople working in MNEs.
The cognitive dimension refers to “the shared understanding, representations, and interpretations of meaning among parties in a relationship” (Hughes, Le Bon, and Rapp 2013, p. 94). The cognitive dimension requires shared languages, codes, and narratives (Rouziès and Hulland 2014). We also expect that salespeople will use social media to communicate and share content, which will build a shared understanding and, thus, cognitive social capital.
Social media and the degree of firm internationalization both serve as conduits for the development and expansion of social capital. To utilize social capital as an overarching theory, in our first study, we analyze how effective social media use helps develop external connections and downstream performance benefits (See Figure 2 for the conceptual model). In our second study, we conduct qualitative interviews to explore how social media use facilitates both external and internal connections. We discuss these elements within the context of the degree of firm internationalization.
Conceptual Model.
Study 1: Quantitative Study Focusing on External Connections in an International Context
Framework and Hypotheses
Social media use and customer relations
B2B salespeople utilize social media for a variety of reasons, including perceptions of utility (Bill, Feurer, and Klarmann 2020). As we contend, perceptions of utility also include the urge to satisfy psychological and social needs. Thus, we turn to uses and gratifications theory, which is based on the idea that individuals are motivated to use various forms of media (i.e., social media) to fulfill various psychological and social needs. This theory proposes that social media use is active and goal-oriented (Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch 1973; Stafford, Stafford, and Schkade 2004). Extant research has proposed a variety of gratifications that are derived from social media use and relevant to our study; these include socialization, information, and communication (Quinn 2016; Whiting and Williams 2013).
We suggest that motivation for various types of gratifications also apply to salespeople who use social media to develop customer relations. We argue that the interactive nature of social media allows salespeople access to a larger number of social resources, providing them with an opportunity to develop customer relations (i.e., socialization motives). Because social media allows for the free flow of information, it will enable salespeople to obtain relevant information about their customers (i.e., information motives; Agnihotri et al. 2022; Itani et al. 2020). Social media use also reduces “distance” between the salesperson and customer (Itani et al. 2021), and by “casting a digital net” (Chaker et al. 2022, p.138), it facilitates interactions between the salesperson and a greater number of customers (i.e., communication motives).
Thus, when the salesperson utilizes social media effectively (i.e., diligently gathering pertinent information and identifying key contacts within the customer's firm), their efforts will be rewarded by securing a strategic position within their customers’ buying center (Palmatier 2008). Moreover, similar strategic behaviors have been positively associated with improved relationship quality with customers (Munyon et al. 2021). Ultimately, these behaviors lead to social benefits (Böhm et al. 2020; Bolander et al. 2015). For these reasons, we advance our first hypothesis:
Customer relations, positive publicity, and social media advocacy
The development of customer relations allows salespeople to identify and gain access to relevant and diverse members of their customer's firm (Palmatier 2008). In effect, this means that the salesperson now has a much wider audience and the possibility for additional interactions (Rouziou et al. 2018). Customer relations are merely the first stage in a process that helps the salesperson create opportunities; however, the salesperson will need to engage in additional behaviors to leverage the benefits (Böhm et al. 2020). To reap the full benefits of this strategic position, salespeople will need to communicate information (i.e., product and service benefits and firm and brand strengths)—that is, engage in positive publicity.
Influence represents the core reason behind these types of behaviors (Argo and Dahl 2020). To illustrate, salespeople are often tasked with persuading customers with various types of social influence (Kalra et al. 2017). We argue that customer relations provide a “conduit” for social forms of influence (i.e., positive publicity; Stevenson and Radin 2009, p. 23). In other words, when salespeople have access to different members of the customer firm, they may be able to influence the customer's beliefs. By leveraging their interpersonal connections strategically, salespeople can effectively shape their customers’ perceptions by fostering positive attitudes toward their products, services, firm, or brand (i.e., positive publicity). Furthermore, customer relations suggest that the salesperson will have an effective means of disseminating information externally (Yli-Renko, Autio, and Sapienza 2001). Finally, positive publicity is a specific way that a salesperson can effectively deploy resources and capture additional value (Adler and Kwon 2002). For these reasons, we advance our next hypothesis:
To better understand why customer relations will lead to social media advocacy, we draw on literature from social influence theory (e.g., Chaker, Zablah, and Noble 2018). Social influence is “the process whereby people directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings or actions of others” (Turner 1991, p. 1). In a B2B context, salespeople are aware of the importance of internal connections and mutual support (Plouffe 2018). Thus, we argue that if salespeople are successful in developing customer relations (via social media), they will also be able to effectively influence their peers in how to use social media. For a salesperson to be able to advocate for effective social media usage, they will first need to demonstrate that they have successfully developed customer relations (Schmitt, Casenave, and Pallud 2021b). In other words, the “gravitas” of the salesperson will be evident, and the salesperson will be able to argue (with evidence) to their colleagues that they know how to use social media effectively. When a salesperson provides evidence that their social media use is efficacious (i.e., develops customer relations), we expect similar results as they turn their efforts inward and educate their colleagues to effectively use social media (Kalra et al. 2017).
Consequently, customer relations help salespeople to recognize the advantages of using social media as a tool for nurturing and maintaining these relationships, encouraging them to advocate for social media use among their peers and colleagues. Furthermore, as social capital is rooted in the idea that individuals can “profit” from their interactions with others, a key benefit will be knowledge transfer (Coleman 1988). Because the strategic position obtained within the customer's buying center is a resource, the salesperson who has it will have “informational advantages” on how to effectively utilize social media (Kalra, Agnihotri, and Briggs 2021, p. 271). In turn, they will be able to convey their expertise in the form of social media advocacy. Formally stated,
The interaction of positive publicity and firm internationalization on salesperson performance
We expect a positive relationship between positive publicity and sales performance. Owing to a large audience on social media, sales representatives can supplement traditional branding efforts by showcasing their firm in a personalized manner. Positive publicity also entails the building of brand loyalty, which has been shown to increase selling effort (Hughes 2013) and customer purchase intentions, thereby driving performance (Reynolds and Arnold 2000). Furthermore, communication about products and services has been linked with individual sales performance (Ogilvie et al. 2018). However, we anticipate that the sales performance benefits of positive publicity will be more pronounced for salespeople in local firms (i.e., lower degrees of internationalization).
Local firms have their operations (e.g., R&D, marketing department) in their home country, which means more familiarity with local conditions and customers (Nachum 2010). As a result, salespeople in local firms will not be hampered by the “liability of foreignness” and will be able to better resonate positive publicity efforts with their audience (Wan, Williamson, and Pandit 2020, p. 1). Positive publicity from salespeople in local firms will be more relevant for customers (i.e., promotion of local events) and thus, will have a stronger sales performance impact.
Furthermore, when salespeople promote and advocate for their firm brand via positive publicity, they will actively focus on the curation of a positive image (Baker et al. 2014). We contend that this will be more salient for a salesperson in a local firm because of a greater necessity to engage in novel strategies (Bocconcelli, Cioppi, and Pagano 2017) and a lack of brand awareness in local firms (Poulis, Yamin, and Poulis 2012). Thus, positive publicity can increase brand awareness (i.e., by a salesperson promoting the firm and the brand). Formally stated,
The interaction of social media advocacy and firm internationalization on salesperson performance
Social media advocacy is an internally oriented set of behaviors and practices. However, extant research suggests that intraorganizational activities can drive individual sales performance (e.g., Plouffe 2018). To provide further illustration, Bolander et al. (2015) find that intraorganizational connections (i.e., social media advocacy) are positively related to individual sales performance. Plouffe et al. (2016) suggest that proactive types of internal work behaviors (i.e., social media advocacy) can have downstream performance impacts. Similarly, other scholars (Lee et al. 2020) discuss how internal effectiveness can be beneficial for overall sales performance.
However, the crux of our argument is that for salespeople in MNEs (i.e., higher degrees of internationalization) the benefits will be amplified because of the characteristics of MNEs (i.e., broader pool of colleagues and superior information and knowledge transfer capabilities). With a broader pool of colleagues, salespeople in MNEs have the potential to leverage a large international network of colleagues (Reiche, Harzing, and Kraimer 2009), which can create positive synergies and, thus, better sales performance. In contrast, with a smaller pool of colleagues located in one country, salespeople in local firms may struggle to develop a strong internal network.
Furthermore, when a salesperson from an MNE develops customer relations and engages in social media advocacy, their internal efforts to share “how to do it” will be more effective in an MNE, as there are distinct information-sharing advantages (Meyer, Li, and Schotter 2020). In other words, through the development of customer relations, the salesperson will create knowledge on the effective use of social media, and social media advocacy represents how they can share this knowledge. This will be more advantageous for salespeople in MNEs because, in terms of our operationalization (i.e., higher degrees of internationalization), there will be a broader pool of international colleagues (Buckley and Carter 2004). Therefore, when salespeople in MNEs engage in social media advocacy, they will be more able to share and leverage knowledge, which will improve their sales performance. Inversely, in local firms, salespeople will lack similar knowledge-sharing opportunities, which will hinder their sales performance.
Social media advocacy also results in obtaining additional resources to leverage (i.e., premium LinkedIn tools), which will help the salesperson improve their sales performance. Because resources are generally higher in MNEs as compared with local firms (i.e., larger budgets; Vorhies 1998), the potential to leverage social media advocacy into higher sales performance is more pronounced. Thus, social media advocacy will create internal synergies that will be most impactful for salespeople in MNEs. Formally stated,
Research Methods
Sample and data collection
This study was conducted by online survey with a sample of B2B sales professionals in France. Our sample is generally representative of B2B salespeople in France (based on the Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques). The survey was conducted over a three-week period, and 478 salespeople were selected and contacted via direct message on LinkedIn. Ultimately, 212 respondents completed the survey (a 35% response rate; e.g., Chaker et al. 2021; Itani and Chaker 2021). The final sample contains 131 B2B salespeople who met our rigorous sampling criteria. For example, respondents were dropped if they provided incomplete answers, identified as a manager without direct selling responsibilities, indicated that they sold B2C, or did not identify their firm (which was needed to determine the degree of internationalization). The sample is predominantly male, which reflects the nature of the B2B context and of similar studies (e.g., Epler and Leach 2021; Habel, Alavi, and Linsenmayer 2021). The average age is 38 years old, with an average of 12 years of sales experience. The sales professionals in our sample operate in a variety of industries and firm sizes ranging from small start-ups to large, established firms (>5,000 employees). See Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics.
Measures
All measurement scales used in this study were developed and adapted from existing scales. All items were measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree,” and 5 = “strongly agree”). To ensure the accuracy of the translation of the scales, we utilized parallel translators and conducted a double translation of the items. The translators discussed the differences in translation to arrive at a relevant formulation. Next, we pretested the questionnaire with four sales professionals (not included in the sample), who provided critical feedback on the comprehension and consistency of the survey items. In response, we made minor modifications to ensure comprehension and scale accuracy. The items and factor loadings are in Web Appendix A.
Social media use was measured with the three-item scale adapted from the technology use literature (Agnihotri, Rapp, and Trainor 2009) and validated in the social media literature (Agnihotri et al. 2016; Itani et al. 2020). To measure salesperson performance, we used the three-item subjective performance scale of Hunter and Panagopoulos (2015). To measure customer relations, we utilized the four-item scale utilized by Böhm et al. (2020) and Palmatier (2008). To measure positive publicity, we adapted Vorhies's (1998) marketing capability scale to fit the individual salesperson context. Specifically, we retained three items that corresponded to positive publicity. For the measure of social media advocacy, we adapted the influence scale of Yukl, Seifert, and Chavez (2008) and retained five items.
To measure the degree of firm internationalization, we calculated the international scope for each firm in the sample as the number of countries in which they have operations (Keig, Brouthers, and Marshall 2019). This measurement has been extensively used (e.g., Marshall, Brouthers, and Keig 2020), and only direct foreign operations were considered (sales offices, foreign subsidiaries, R&D facilities, and production sites) so that agents or distributors were excluded. Information on foreign operations was taken directly from each firm's website and cross-checked by the research team (M = 44.10, Min = 1, Max = 170, Mdn = 14, SD = 56.87). See Table 2 for construct correlations.
Construct Correlations.
*p < .05.
**p < .01 (two-tailed).
Notes: n = 131. INT = degree of internationalization; SMA = social media advocacy; RR = role responsibility.
Reliability and validity of measures
For each study construct, we examined various forms of reliability and validity. First, to measure construct reliability, we checked two coefficients proposed by Hair et al. (2017). First, we computed Cronbach's alpha for our scales, which ranged from .55 to .94. Second, we calculated composite reliability, which is a more accurate measure than Cronbach's alpha since it does not assume that the item error terms are equal (Chin, Marcolin, and Newsted 2003). Our composite reliability levels ranged from .73 to .96; therefore, we conclude that our measures offer internal consistency.
Next, to measure convergent validity, we analyzed the factor loadings for each item, as well as the average variance extracted, which we also present in Web Appendix A. All factor loadings are positive and significant. While the average variance extracted was low (i.e., 41%) for customer relations, Malhotra and Dash (2011) suggest that composite reliability scores suffice for convergent validity. For discriminant validity, we calculated the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT), which estimates interconstruct correlations. The HTMT approach is appropriate for small sample sizes, and we establish discriminant validity, as the HTMT ranged from .09 to .78, below the conservative threshold of .85 (Voorhees et al. 2016).
To best control for common method variance (CMV), we adhered to procedural methods and post hoc statistical methods (Podsakoff et al. 2003). For example, we explained the academic purpose of the survey and guaranteed their anonymity (Podsakoff et al. 2003). In addition, if interactions are the focus of a study, and there are multiple independent variables, CMV is not a major issue (Siemsen, Roth, and Oliveira 2010). We also examined potential CMV issues by looking at variance inflation factor (VIF) ranges. Specifically, Kock (2015) proposes that inner model factors that exceed 3.3 are strong evidence of multicollinearity as well as CMV. None of our VIF values exceed this critical threshold, and the range is from 1.09 to 2.46. We also utilized the random dependent variable technique from Kock and Lynn (2012), who suggest creating a randomly generated numerical dependent variable and regressing all independent variables onto the random dependent variable; if the VIF levels are below 3.3, it provides evidence that CMV is not an issue. All our values are below this critical range (1.09 to 2.78). Thus, we are confident that CMV is not a major concern.
Analysis strategy
We have chosen to use SmartPLS (partial least squares structural equation modeling [PLS-SEM]) as our methodological approach for several reasons. First, it is considered a robust analysis technique that is particularly useful for exploratory, predictive research with small sample sizes (Hair et al. 2017). Second, our model is complex, with interactions, and unlike covariance-based SEM, PLS is not hamstrung by identification issues (Lussier et al. 2022). Third, as Bolander et al. (2015) note, PLS-SEM produces similar results to covariance-based SEM. Next, Sarstedt et al. (2022), suggest that PLS is an appropriate choice when estimating conditional process models (i.e., models with mediating and moderating variables). Finally, as our focus is both prediction and theory-testing, PLS is an appropriate methodology (Hult et al. 2018).
We also find our approach appropriate for other reasons. Specifically, PLS has been widely used in sales research (e.g., Bolander et al. 2015; Itani et al. 2021). However, it must be noted that Cadogan and Lee (2022) list measurement error as a critical issue for PLS, and Rönkkö et al. (2023) describe the potential for misreported results. However, in line with currently established best practices in PLS (Sarstedt et al. 2022), the Stone–Geisser Q2 values (indicating predictive relevance) are all above 0, which provides further evidence that our model predicts our measured items.
Endogeneity
We utilize an array of different control variables to help combat omitted variable bias (Sande and Ghosh 2018). Specifically, we include adaptive selling, as salespeople interpret it to include a wide array of different behaviors, including social media usage (Alavi, Habel, and Linsenmayer 2019). We also controlled for “internal importance” with the amount of role responsibility of the salesperson (Hall, Frink, and Buckley 2017). We also included years of experience, size of firm, age, and the respondent's location regarding the headquarters (1 = Headquarters, 2 = Subsidiary).
In addition, we followed recent sales research (e.g., Lussier et al. 2022) and first conducted a test of nonnormality (i.e., Shapiro–Wilk) of the independent variables to ensure significance for nonnormality. All tests were significant (social media use: p < .001, customer relations: p < .001, positive publicity: p < .001, social media advocacy: p < .001). Following this, we tested for endogeneity with Gaussian copula terms, and none of the terms were significant (Becker, Proksch, and Ringle 2022). In line with recent research (e.g., Burchett, Murtha, and Kohli 2023; Hult et al. 2018), we do not include the nonsignificant copula terms in the model.
Hypothesis Testing
Consistent with recent sales research (e.g., Kalra et al. 2023), we compared competing models to test directionality. Model 1 contained our hypothesized relationships, whereas Model 2 was based on reverse directionality. Following this, the models were compared on the basis of the Bayesian information criterion, the Akaike information criterion, and the consistent Akaike information criterion. As we expected, the hypothesized model (i.e., Model 1) performed significantly better, which allows us to test our hypothesized model with confidence. See Web Appendix B for comparison results.
We test our hypotheses (i.e., H1–H5) with SmartPLS version 4.0.8.3. Significance levels were determined with p-values and 131 cases per sample run with 5,000 bootstrap sample runs (Hair et al. 2017). Table 3 contains our significance (t- and p-value) levels, hypothesis tests, and coefficients. H1, which predicted that social media use would have a positive relationship with customer relations, was significant (β = .20, p < .05). H2, which predicted that customer relations would have a positive relationship with positive publicity, was also significant (β = .32, p < .001). H3, which predicted that customer relations would be positively related to social media advocacy, was also significant (β = .17, p < .05). Next, H4, which suggested that the degree of internationalization would interact with positive publicity such that salespeople in local firms would report improved sales performance, was not confirmed (β = −.09, p = .21). Finally, H5, which predicted that the degree of internationalization would positively interact with social media advocacy such that salespeople in MNEs would report improved sales performance, was confirmed (β = .21, p < .05). See Table 3 for results and Figure 3 for a visual representation of our interaction. In addition, see Web Appendices C and D for additional information on robustness tests.
The Interaction of Firm Internationalization with Social Media Advocacy on Salesperson Performance.
Qualitative Study Participant Information.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
Notes: Sample N = 131. INT = degree of firm internationalization. Model fit statistics: SRMR = .078.
Study 2: Qualitative Interviews Examining External and Internal Connections in an International Context
Study Design
The primary objective of the first study was to provide insight into of the impact of firm internationalization on social media effectiveness. We suggest that salespeople use social media to fulfill social and psychological needs and, in the process, create social benefits or external connections (i.e., customer relations). This results in social influence outcomes (i.e., positive publicity and social media advocacy), and social media advocacy is positively moderated by the degree of firm internationalization. Social capital encompasses these premises and benefits. Whereas our Study 1 only focused on the impact of external connections with customers (i.e., customer relations), we next seek to better understand the impact of internal and external connections. Moreover, as our Study 1 measures do not capture the structural, cognitive, or relational elements of social capital, here we focus on these distinct elements to properly utilize social capital as an overarching paradigm.
Thus, we conducted qualitative interviews for Study 2. The author team collaborated on developing the interview protocol before conducting formal interviews. Throughout the data collection phase, the authors communicated and shared insights to reflect on their experiences to ensure that the interviews were conducted in a consistent manner. To capture the international aspects of social media use, our interviews followed a three-step process in which we asked participants (1) for a description of the international context of their firm and sales job, (2) to discuss social media use in an international context, and (3) to discuss social media use within the firm.
Data Collection
Our sample includes 23 B2B salespeople who actively use social media (e.g., LinkedIn) and work in an MNE and/or an international context. Participants were recruited and selected based on a purposeful sampling technique (Creswell 2013) that is consistent with recent sales literature (e.g., Flaherty and Schroeder 2022). We conducted 26 interviews but excluded 3, as these participants lacked international experience or insights into the international use of social media. On average, our sample reported eight years of sales experience and a sold in a diverse array of sales contexts, ranging from business developers to global key account managers. In total, 17 participants worked in MNEs, while 6 participants worked in local firms, with each firm operating across various industries such as pharmaceutical, IT, construction, and energy (see participant details in Table 4).
The Impact of Social Media Use.
Notes: Exp. = years of sales experience; International = the international aspect of the job (i.e., customers in multiple countries); Size = number of employees; Localization = whether the salesperson is working at the head office or in a subsidiary and specifies the head office's country of origin; Profile = the company profile (international or local) and specifies the number of subsidiaries; M = male; F = female.
Ultimately, we interviewed three types of participants: (1) salespeople working in local firms with international customers (i.e., LOCAL), (2) salespeople working in MNEs with local customers (i.e., MNE-L), (3) salespeople working in MNEs with international customers (i.e., MNE-I). This selection enabled us to establish a comparison between salespeople in MNEs and local firms while keeping the international aspect at the core of our study. The interviews were conducted by the author team on video conferencing software (i.e., Zoom and Microsoft Teams), and the interviews ranged from 20 to 82 minutes, with an average duration of 30 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim, except for one, as the participant declined to be recorded. In this instance, extensive notes were taken and utilized for analysis.
Data Analysis
To analyze our data, we employed a theoretical thematic analysis (e.g., Boyatzis 1998). Our thematic analysis closely followed the six phases outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). The first phase encompasses the familiarization with the data, which involves listening to the accounts provided by participants (Creswell and Poth 2016). During this stage, two researchers reviewed all data and exchanged thoughts on the coding scheme. Through discussion, we identified the importance of social capital, which reinforces our overarching theoretical framework.
In our second phase, we engaged in the initial round of coding. Given our social capital framing, our first codes highlight concepts such as efforts to develop customer relations, and shared representations. For example, we coded “I rely on local people to identify contacts” as “network construction.” Our third and fourth phases of analysis involved the distillation of specific themes; specifically, we categorized our codes into three themes identified in the literature: structural, relational, and cognitive social capital (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998).
In our fifth phase, our intentions were to “define and refine” each theme (Braun and Clarke 2006, p. 92). Specifically, two authors examined each interview and assigned the interview codes to a specific theme, addressing any remaining comprehension issues to build a more comprehensive understanding of the various social capital elements. Within each theme, two subthemes were identified, indicating whether the social capital was internal (i.e., within members of the same firm) or external (i.e., involving customers or prospects), which is in line with literature on social capital (Adler and Kwon 2002). Lastly, we chose “vivid examples, which capture the essence of the point we are demonstrating” (Braun and Clarke 2006, p. 93) to illustrate our discussion.
Findings
Social media to enhance structural social capital in MNEs
Regardless of whether they work with international or local customers, salespeople in MNEs are cognizant of the international reach of their social media activity. As a result, they strive to connect with international prospects. For instance, MNE-L7, who collaborates with local customers, stated, If someone from another country likes a post, their contacts will see it too. This means that the content has an international reach. LinkedIn, like all social media, is a big directory that allows me to look for a business partner that I can do international business with.
Utilizing social media enables salespeople to reach prospects and customers and enhance the development of their internal network. However, in MNEs, where colleagues are dispersed globally, achieving internal visibility becomes more challenging. Consequently, salespeople leverage LinkedIn to enhance their internal visibility among their international colleagues, as illustrated by MNE-I19: Internally, the use of LinkedIn allows us to give visibility to certain projects and initiatives that we are involved in or to relay certain information to colleagues. It also allows us to be known by the international ecosystem. We don’t all know each other, so it's a real opportunity to discover what other colleagues are doing internationally.
Additionally, salespeople employed in MNEs emphasized the significance of a strong internal network (MNE-L10). As another example, MNE-I18 relies on her international colleagues to assist her in prospecting and engaging in conversations with key customers: Working as a team, I rely on local salespeople to identify potential new contacts, or on my colleagues at the headquarter to give me the right contacts in other countries. Afterwards, I connect with those contacts on social media.
Social media to enhance structural social capital in local firms selling internationally
In local firms, social media empowers salespeople to engage with “out of reach” prospects. For example, despite geographic barriers, salespeople can directly send messages to international prospects. As explained by LOCAL1: Social networks allow me to identify international contacts and interact with people who are all over the world. I use social media to find points of contact, whether with distributors or retailers internationally, but also to sell them our products. It's usually very targeted, I target contact points such as product managers and category managers.
However, other respondents did not share the same confidence. LOCAL3 expressed that while working for a local firm, they did not feel “legitimate” enough to contact international customers through their personal page. Instead, the company's LinkedIn page was more suitable for connecting with international prospects. Therefore, salespeople in local firms who seek to grow international ties engaged in specific strategies. We identified two distinct strategies: (1) consistently sharing official firm information on LinkedIn and (2) personal branding on LinkedIn. To illustrate, LOCAL3 explained how the salespeople in her firm engage in the first strategy: To target the Portuguese market, we need to have extensive communication via LinkedIn, we need to send information on all the major social media, we need to make ourselves known, we need to present our solutions and what we can do, and we need to target the big cities (Lisbon, Braga, etc.).
LOCAL4 highlights how she utilizes the second strategy: What I find interesting on social media is personal branding. You announce what you did during the year, your achievements, and it's really a great way to create impressions at the international level. It allows you to have a reach that goes beyond your network. For instance, I can post a text about climate change, and in the end, it can give me the opportunity to acquire a buyer from another country who comes across my post and will think of me for the business part.
Social media to enhance relational social capital in MNEs
Salespeople in MNEs harness social media to maintain and strengthen their existing international network. According to MNE-I20, LinkedIn enables the development of customer insights (e.g., new job position, new contacts), which ultimately solidifies the relationship: We relay [specific sales activities] through local people in order to value the work that has been done for the customer. It raises awareness of what has occurred abroad and shows we are very happy to work with the customer.
In an IT company, LinkedIn is also used to establish customer champions (i.e., customers who become ambassadors for other users; MNE-I14). MNE-I14 also acknowledges that the use of LinkedIn not only fosters relationships but also helps educate customers about products and services, which creates value. Interestingly, social media can also reinforce relationships between colleagues in MNEs. Social media can serve as a surrogate for offline interactions in international settings, and this helps build internal networks. For instance, social media increases intimacy between geographically dispersed team members. According to MNE-I20, We use social media to share a little bit of news and to create some intimacy between teams that only meet physically once a year.
Social media appears to be used by salespeople to strengthen relationships with colleagues, promoting a sense of the “greater good.” Salespeople in MNEs utilize social media as an instrument for cultivating a culture of mutual support, as MNE-L8 explained: I share content [on social media] and sometimes I comment and identify a colleague, so that everyone can benefit from it.
In numerous cases, interpersonal relationships provided additional business opportunities. As an example, a salesperson working in France (MNE-I14) secured a unique position with his German counterparts, thereby receiving additional business opportunities: We have a subsidiary in Germany that deals with the cloud, and I shared several posts on this topic. Now, as soon as an opportunity arrives on their side, they send it directly to me instead of going through the traditional circuit or instead of sending it to another salesperson. … In concrete terms, this allowed me to obtain two contracts.
Although social media remains a valuable tool, salespeople in MNEs often utilize other digital technologies, such as enterprise social media or videoconference tools, to strengthen their international network. For example, MNE-I17 mentioned connecting with an international colleague through social media, yet preferring videoconferencing for internal communication (e.g., Microsoft Teams). In terms of internal knowledge sharing, MNE-L8 discussed how his firm has developed an international mentorship program, where salespeople engage with colleagues to access information and enhance personal skills. Furthermore, while salespeople can strengthen their international relationships with colleagues through social media, they often continue to seek informal assistance from local coworkers. For instance, MNE-L7 will often post messages in a private social media group, asking colleagues to share his social media publications.
Social media to enhance relational social capital in local firms selling internationally
In local firms, salespeople often rely solely on social media to connect with their international customers and prospects. For example, LOCAL5's firm lacks international recognition and does not engage in firm-level international communication via social media. As a result, she underscored the significance of establishing personal relationships (via LinkedIn) with international prospects: I use LinkedIn to build business relationships,… to see what the prospects do, and to cultivate this frequent contact that would normally occur in daily life. For the German market, they need you to be in their daily life in order to naturally come to you one day. When they have a request and start to trust you, then it grows like that little by little.
Social media to enhance cognitive social capital in MNEs
MNEs are structured around a global strategy, which helps to inform their social media positioning strategies, as stated by MNE-I18: We are a global company, with global products, which have the same specifics everywhere and when we communicate, it reflects the global marketing strategy. [We don’t change the marketing strategy.] … What is certain is that all communication is done in an inclusive way so that when people are presented, all populations, everyone can recognize themselves in the communication. The impact is to be known worldwide, to always have the brand image. [We use social media to ensure] that everyone in the world is aware of our presence.
In international contexts, salespeople strategically post content to connect with their customers. For example, MNE-I17 carefully selects the types of content to post and the languages to use, to convey an international image to her customers. However, expressing cultural intelligence via social media can be challenging. For example, MNE-I18 will not discuss political, social, or cultural issues that could be perceived negatively by their customers: [On social media] I’m careful about anything that has to do with values, politics, religion, animals, and definitely not personal things or as little as possible. I have international clients. For example, I have clients in [both] Ukraine and Russia.
Our findings also revealed specific knowledge transfer mechanisms within MNEs. MNEs often emphasize a common understanding among their employees and subsidiaries. As a stringent example, MNE-I13 received strict guidelines requiring approval from the U.S. headquarters for any social media posts. Furthermore, MNEs often create databases of customer information, as MNE-L8 shared this example: I came across the [internal] success story of how another subsidiary had won a big customer in Canada. This international experience helped me plan my strategy for the French market.
However, the headquarters are not always the sole source of knowledge. In some cases, subsidiaries also initiate efforts. For example, certain international firms hold workshop sessions where subsidiaries share best practices for effective online networking. To illustrate, a salesperson (MNE-L11) who works in France explained how their German teams, who have expertise in “large deals,” share insights. MNE-L12 described how successful content produced by subsidiaries is translated (by the U.S. headquarters) into native languages. MNEs also rely on salespeople as internal resources to develop a common understanding. For example, MNE-I19 has been tasked with the validation of social media posts: I’m often asked by foreign marketing departments to check if the right messages are being passed on when they are translating them into a different language, so that they can relay them in the countries locally.
This finding demonstrates that salespeople in MNEs can receive benefits from practices that have emerged in other markets. Thus, their internal network plays a crucial role in building a common understanding externally (i.e., with customers and prospects) and internally (i.e., with peers).
Social media to enhance cognitive social capital in local firms selling internationally
Local firms tended to focus on their local markets. This leads salespeople to struggle when trying to build a shared understanding with their international prospects and customers. As LOCAL5 explained: The marketing strategy that the firm puts on social media is very “France oriented”; it is all in French. We don’t address foreigners. I tell [my international customers] to follow [the firm on social media], but apart from looking at the pictures they can’t understand what is written.
In local firms, salespeople also informally share best practices with their colleagues to develop cognitive social capital. Various participants discussed engaging in spontaneous discussions to share tips and best practices. This is sensible, as local firms often have limited resources and may lack formal information sharing mechanisms. However, in terms of a low-cost resource, LOCAL4 mentioned that her firm provides access to LinkedIn training, which allows her to improve her social media skills and relay the lessons to her colleagues and peers.
Discussion and Implications
The findings of our first study suggest that social media use helps develop customer relations (i.e., external connections), which in turn has a positive effect on positive publicity and social media advocacy. In terms of the degree of internationalization, we did not find support for the notion that working in a local firm has an impact on positive publicity and sales performance. Interestingly, there is a significant direct effect of positive publicity on salesperson performance, which suggests that salespeople should engage in this behavior regardless of the degree of internationalization. However, we were able to confirm that the degree of internationalization positively influences social media advocacy such that the greater number of countries that a firm operates in, the greater the impact of social media advocacy on individual sales performance. This result suggests that the degree of firm internationalization expands the benefits of social media advocacy, which provides crucial insights into our first research question.
Concerning the second research question, our qualitative study enables us to better understand the differences between social media use in MNEs and local firms and to examine both external and internal connections. To extend the quantitative findings, our qualitative results suggest that while social media usage is commonplace for salespeople in MNEs and local firms, they differ in utilization strategies that help build their international social capital. To illustrate, MNEs and local firms both use social media to develop their structural, relational, and cognitive capital. However, MNEs and local firms differ on three major points: the resources devoted to the development of social media strategies, internal knowledge sharing, and the formalization of processes regarding the use of social media. See Web Appendix E for key differences.
Theoretical Implications
Our research offers several important theoretical contributions for salesperson social media literature and international sales and marketing literature. First, we suggest that where a salesperson works (i.e., in an MNE or a local firm) has distinct theoretical implications for salespeople's social media use. For example, we advance the concept of social media advocacy (Schmitt, Casenave, and Pallud 2021b) by suggesting that salespeople in MNEs should engage in this set of behaviors. This is important, as social media advocacy may be a potential solution for salespeople who struggle with social media use (Bill, Feurer, and Klarmann 2020). Specifically, through advocating for social media use to peers, more salespeople might develop better social media skills (i.e., learning by doing). Contrary to our expectations, there were no performance differences between salespeople in MNEs and local firms with regard to positive publicity. This is likely due to the fact that we are in a B2B sales environment with elevated customer expectations, and most salespeople are trying to do more (i.e., engage in positive publicity; Bonney, Beeler, and Chaker 2022). The significant direct effect provides further evidence that positive publicity efforts are being undertaken by all B2B salespeople to connect and engage with customers in an increasingly digital world (Bowen et al. 2021).
Second, we extend B2B sales literature by highlighting that social media use can develop international social capital. First, salespeople develop cognitive social capital by helping facilitate knowledge exchange between the head office and international subsidiaries. Second, salespeople develop structural social capital by means of their connections with their international peers, who provide access to valuable information about local customers or local cultures. Third, while relational social capital remains limited within MNEs at an international level, we demonstrate that knowledge sharing among peers (i.e., social media advocacy) is particularly relevant in MNEs. This provides important theoretical guidance for internal forms of collaboration (e.g., Schrock et al. 2024). Collectively, our studies represent an important contribution to B2B social media literature, as extant research lacks an international focus (Johnston et al. 2018). Furthermore, as a recent meta-analysis of salesperson effectiveness (e.g., Claro, Ramos, and Palmatier 2023) indicates, factors which help uncover effective strategies for international salespeople contribute to international sales theory.
Managerial Implications
Implications for MNEs and international guidance
Knowledge transfer is one key factor that explains the differences of MNEs’ competitive advantage compared with local firms (Zeng, Grøgaard, and Steel 2018). Social media represents an opportunity for MNEs to leverage greater knowledge bases, learning capabilities and stronger internal networks. However, social media also represents a threat in several ways. First, local subsidiaries may use social media at a different maturity level, which may prevent the adoption of similar selling processes and customer approaches in each country. Second, when an individual salesperson uses social media, there can be inconsistencies in terms of communication to prospects and customers. This may suggest the need to set international guidelines on how to appropriately target local social media efforts. Third, if social media communications are centralized, there is a potential risk of local market insensitivity. A balanced social media strategy requires coordination between the head office and international subsidiaries. Consequently, it is important for an MNE to understand the possibilities of social media in contrast with actual practices. This will allow for management to determine if there are deficiencies or the need for managerial intervention.
Social media use and positive publicity and social media advocacy
The results of our quantitative study highlight the strategic importance of social media to develop customer relations. However, a key managerial insight is that both positive publicity and social media advocacy should be encouraged by managers. Consequently, firms should equip salespeople with training and tools (i.e., LinkedIn Premium/Sales Navigator) to successfully engage in both efforts. Firms can also leverage sales enablement tools (e.g., Rangarajan et al. 2020) to scale and internalize these practices. Practically speaking, this means that positive publicity efforts could be augmented with lead automation tools (i.e., by identifying key targets), and social media advocacy could be formalized and scaled throughout the firm.
The experiences shared by our qualitative respondents provide insight into effective social media use. For example, we encourage the adoption of a “dual strategy” where they engage in positive publicity for their firm and develop personal branding (e.g., Peesker et al. 2022). Inversely, for salespeople working in MNEs, social media helps to expand their network. Because MNEs have more resources, they are encouraged to develop digital strategies where multiple technologies (e.g., social media, automation, social listening, and business intelligence tools) are connected. Enterprise social media will also be beneficial for salespeople working in MNEs, as it can help them identify additional international colleagues.
For salespeople working in local firms, personal initiatives appear to be more appropriate. Thus, salespeople in local firms could benefit from codification of their social media knowledge, to make it more widely available. In these firms, salespeople who have more advanced knowledge/skills could receive recognition from their firm and engage in the role of “social media ambassador.”
Training and hiring
Our results also provide managerial insights into the training and hiring of B2B salespeople. As indicated by Study 1, salespeople in MNEs who are successful at customer relations and social media advocacy efforts will be better equipped to provide key insights to their colleagues. This means that management within MNEs needs to identify the salespeople who are skilled at social media and encourage them to share insights with others (Epler et al. 2023). For hiring decisions, firms will need to look for salespeople who possess digital skills or have a desire to learn. This also implies that sales education programs should place more focus on social media modules.
Limitations and Future Research
This research is not without its limitations. First, our salesperson performance measure is self-reported. Self-reported salesperson performance has been shown to be free of bias (e.g., Sharma, Rich, and Levy 2004). However, it would be ideal to advance our work by incorporating more robust performance metrics (Bolander et al. 2021). This could be achieved with a percentage of business goal achievement (e.g., Lussier, Hartmann, and Bolander 2021), manager-rated sales performance (e.g., Lussier et al. 2021), or sales from firm records (Dugan et al. 2019).
Second, because Study 1 utilizes single-source data, there is a possibility of omitted variables and other forms of endogeneity (Sande and Ghosh 2018). In fact, endogeneity is nearly unavoidable in social science research (Wooldridge 2010). Even though our copula terms were nonsignificant, our first study sample size was small (i.e., n = 131), and we strongly encourage future research with a larger sample size. Furthermore, we were not able to capture established social network positions. Thus, future research should examine our models with a variety of constructs that capture social network positions, such as degree or closeness centrality (Iacobucci et al. 2017). Both of our studies involve large, industrialized countries, and there is a possibility that there could be differences in transitional economies (e.g., Hewett and Krasnikov 2016); thus, we call for future research in this direction.
Third, our study has operationalized the degree of firm internationalization as geographical scope, failing to account for the relative importance of countries. Furthermore, as internationalization is complex, often containing attitudinal and behavioral elements, we do not consider those aspects in our first study. This is a distinct limitation, yet it opens the door for research that focuses on how to navigate cultural, linguistic, and regional differences (Akaka, Vargo, and Lusch 2013). Fourth, our operationalization does not adequately capture the digital transformation in professional sales. For example, many B2B salespeople now sell digitally in countries without being physically present (Guenzi and Habel 2020). Thus, we encourage future research to extend the work of Guenzi and Habel (2020, p. 79) by looking at how salespeople can function as “enablers” in an ongoing digital transformation.
Fifth and finally, as customer relations are “outward” facing (i.e., external), we do not examine the direct impact between social media use on internally oriented behaviors. This is a limitation that provides an exciting possibility for future research. For example, extant research (e.g., Dugan, Rouziou, and Hochstein 2019; Lee et al. 2020) has examined internal forms of networking, which is akin to internal relations. However, there is very little international sales research that examines this phenomenon. Thus, we encourage future research examining how to develop internal relations effectively.
Supplemental Material
sj-pdf-1-jig-10.1177_1069031X231207050 - Supplemental material for An Inquiry into Effective Salesperson Social Media Use in Multinational Versus Local Firms
Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-jig-10.1177_1069031X231207050 for An Inquiry into Effective Salesperson Social Media Use in Multinational Versus Local Firms by Laurianne Schmitt, Rhett Epler, Eric Casenave and Jessie Pallud in Journal of International Marketing
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the JIM review team for their feedback and insights. The authors would also like to thank the qualitative participants for sharing their time.
Special Issue Editors
Nawar Chaker, Johannes Habel, Alex Zablah, and Kelly Hewett
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References
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