The Future of Research on International Selling and Sales Management

Abstract

As companies expand their international footprint, insight regarding how to effectively organize international selling and sales management (ISSM) efforts is becoming increasingly important. Unfortunately, most prior research on personal selling and sales management is grounded in a domestic market perspective, which limits the relevance of its findings to situations in which sales activities occur between stakeholders located in different national markets. This special issue responds to the need for dedicated research on ISSM through six articles that explore phenomena arising from the interaction between international salespeople and international customers and their domestic counterparts. Moreover, this editorial builds on these six articles to advance a research agenda rooted in an interaction-based conceptualization of the ISSM field that identifies areas of inquiry related to international salespeople, international customers, and international managers, and subsequently prioritizes these research opportunities using input provided by sales practitioners. This special issue and editorial thus identify critical, underexplored research topics in the ISSM domain that are accompanied by a series of illustrative examples of how best to contribute to this emerging but important literature stream.

As an area of inquiry, international selling and sales management (ISSM) is generally concerned with the interactions that occur between any two sales stakeholders—that is, salespeople, customers, and/or managers—who operate in different national markets. As sales teams increasingly become more diverse and spread across different countries, cultures, and regions (Altman and Bastian 2023; Plötner, Habel, and Schmitz 2023), the importance of ISSM to firm performance is hard to overstate. For instance, the United Nations’ World Investment Report indicates that, in 2019, ISSM accounted for about two-thirds of the revenue generated by the largest U.S.-based multinational corporations (United Nations 2020).

Despite its importance to firm performance, academic research on ISSM is relatively scarce (e.g., Baldauf and Lee 2011; Panagopoulos et al. 2011; Schrock et al. 2018). Most prior literature on personal selling and sales management is grounded in a domestic market perspective that implicitly assumes its findings generalize to situations where sales activities occur between stakeholders located in different national markets. However, emerging research on ISSM suggests this assumption is untenable (Claro, Ramos, and Palmatier 2023; Dugan et al. 2020; Habel et al. 2020; Hewett and Krasnikov 2016; Hohenberg and Homburg 2016), thus underscoring the importance of research that can uncover theoretical and managerial insights of value to international sales scholars and practitioners alike.

This special issue of the Journal of International Marketing was motivated by the recognition that ISSM is increasingly critical to firm performance both in individual markets and globally, yet it is underexplored in the literature. The editorial team was impressed by the quality of submissions to this special issue as well as by the scope of topics covered. The six articles chosen for the special issue address phenomena that arise from the interactions that occur between (1) international salespeople and their customers, (2) international salespeople and their managers, (3) international customers and salespeople, and (4) international customers and sales managers. Each article offers insights that are of value to researchers working in the international marketing domain, the sales domain, and the marketing field more broadly, and to practitioners concerned with ISSM phenomena.

In addition, to pave the way for future research, we build on these six articles to advance a research agenda rooted in an interaction-based conceptualization of the ISSM field. Specifically, we suggest that promising opportunities for research arise when scholars consider phenomena that originate from the dyadic interactions that occur between sales stakeholders—that is, salespeople, customers, and/or managers—operating in different national markets. Based on this unique vantage point, we propose research avenues focused on international salespeople, international customers, and international managers, and subsequently prioritize these research avenues using quantitative input provided by sales practitioners. We begin our exposition by introducing a conceptual framework that enables us to highlight the unique contributions of the articles in the special issue and provides the foundation for our future research agenda.

A Conceptual Framework for ISSM Research

We adopt a stakeholder-centered view of ISSM that considers the interactions that occur between three major actors in the sales domain: salespeople, managers, and customers (see Figure 1). Selling and sales management research often considers the interactions that occur between at least two of these stakeholders. For example, prior work examines how managers control salespeople (e.g., Schmitz et al. 2020; Wiseman et al. 2022), how salespeople interact with customers (e.g., Delpechitre, Beeler-Connelly, and Chaker 2018; Kassemeier et al. 2022; Zablah et al. 2012), how managers develop customer-related sales strategies (e.g., Homburg, Droll, and Totzek 2008), and how managers lead salespeople to effectively interact with customers (e.g., Ahearne et al. 2010; Alavi et al. 2018).

Figure 1.

Framework for Future Research on International Selling and Sales Management.

However, prior research in this domain largely ignores interacting dyads that operate out of different national markets, where one member of the dyad (e.g., customer) is located in a domestic market and another (e.g., salesperson) is in an international market. In fact, studies in personal selling and sales force management tend to focus on interactions between sales stakeholders that are colocated in the same country and/or leverage cross-national data without exploring whether their research findings exhibit heterogeneity across countries. Hence, most prior research on sales stakeholder interactions seems to occur in a single domestic market or be nation agnostic, and either implicitly assumes that the effects generalize across national boundaries or relegates international considerations to future research. A multitude of research avenues become evident when scholars explicitly consider what happens when one member of an interacting sales dyad resides in an international market. We elucidate these research avenues next, while highlighting articles in this special issue that address neglected research topics rooted in this unique vantage point.

Salespeople in International Markets

The concept of salespeople in international markets refers to situations in which, for example, salespeople employed by a French firm are based in Canada and interact with their manager and customers in France. In these instances, the salesperson resides in the international market, while the manager and customers operate in the domestic market. Research in this domain considers interactions between international salespeople and their (1) managers or (2) customers.

Interaction between international salespeople and their managers

We propose three broad and distinct topical areas for future investigation related to the interaction between international salespeople and their managers: (a) international sales structures and roles, (b) international sales force control systems, and (c) the lived organizational experiences of international salespeople.

International sales structures and roles. A sales structure refers to the arrangement and organization of a firm's sales team to help it achieve sales goals and support its customers. Different types of sales structures include an inside sales team, outside sales teams, and online channels (Thaichon et al. 2018). Within sales structures, different types of sales roles (e.g., sales development representative, account executive) exist. While it is known to be reputationally crucial for managers to make meaningful sales structure decisions (Weiss, Anderson, and MacInnis 1999), there is a need for more research that explores the manifestation and impact of sales structures in which specific roles are based internationally (Dugan et al. 2020). For example, scholars should seek to determine optimal international job designs and organizational structures that exploit a productive division of labor across salespeople located internationally and domestic-based colleagues, coworkers, and managers. Relatedly, researchers can investigate how domestic managers should maintain continuity and stability when deploying international salespeople. Other research can examine how the activities of international salespeople are coordinated and integrated with other domestic-based business units, departments, and roles.

International sales force control systems. Sales organizations implement control systems to monitor, direct, evaluate, and compensate salespeople (Anderson and Oliver 1987). Several sales force control system schemes have been identified, including activity control, behavior control, clan control, and outcome control (Kim and Tiwana 2016). Although this topic has garnered much attention in the literature (Malek, Sarin, and Jaworski 2018), most of this research has considered sales force control systems in within-country settings. Given the impact of culture on sales force control systems (Hohenberg and Homburg 2016; Rouzies and Macquin 2003), more research is needed to investigate how domestic-based managers should direct the efforts of international salespeople. Likely, a domestically driven sales force control system does not lend itself well to sales force members residing internationally. In situations where managers have effectively implemented international sales force control systems—another opportunity for future research—it would be worthwhile to explore the motivational impact and the richness (or lack thereof) of the relationships between domestic-based managers and international salespeople.

Lived organizational experiences of international salespeople. Another area ripe for research that exists at the intersection of international salespeople and their managers involves exploring the “lived experiences” of international salespeople when it comes to their interactions with internal organizational members. A possible starting point, for example, would be to explore the job-related perceptions and attitudes of international salespeople and how these might affect emotions, stress, and well-being. As part of this point, it would be interesting to learn how international salespeople utilize different world languages and the role of national and cultural identity when interacting with others in their firm who are located in the domestic market. Other research can identify the challenges and issues international salespeople face concerning their interactions with their firms residing in different countries, such as challenges due to differences in culture. This can include a better understanding of cross-cultural effects between international salespeople and their coworkers and managers based in a different nation. Also, it would be quite revealing to explore the lived organizational experiences of salespeople belonging to marginalized groups because of their nationality or ethnicity (Hartmann et al. 2023b). In addition, policies and practices regarding issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion may vary greatly across countries (Newburry et al. 2022).

A great example of research within this special issue that addresses this neglected topic is the work of Madruga et al. (2024). In their study, the authors use a phenomenological qualitative approach to explore how communities formed by customer success professionals are implemented across countries that vary in their levels of uncertainty avoidance. Their interviews with professionals from the United States, Brazil, and Portugal reveal that customer success communities are accepted to different degrees across countries, with greater acceptance in countries characterized by lower uncertainty avoidance. To build on their work, the authors suggest that future research can examine how uncertainty avoidance relates to customer success communities and their impact on customer practice outcomes. They also recommend comparing grassroots versus vendor-supported efforts to offer insight into the authenticity, trust, and credibility of these communities.

Interaction between international salespeople and their customers

We advance three general areas for future research related to the interaction between international salespeople and their customers: (a) international selling processes, (b) customer perceptions of international salespeople, and (c) ethics of selling across cultures.

International selling processes. The sales process and its different steps have long been established in the literature (Dubinsky 1981). Although scholars have revised the specific elements in the sales process to match contemporary selling practices (e.g., Andzulis, Panagopoulos, and Rapp 2012), one consistent characteristic of the sales process is that it consists of activities that can be categorized as presales, during sales, and postsales (e.g., Hochstein et al. 2021). Most prior research is silent on whether the sales process is restricted by country or region and generalizes to international selling. However, scholars have suggested that although some similarities exist, the sales process in global settings does possess notable differences (Kadić-Maglajlić, Chaker, and Arslanagić-Kalajdzić 2021). Toward that end, there remains plenty of opportunity for future research to better understand international selling processes and the activities that international salespeople engage in. For example, future researchers can detect new and different international selling success factors, particularly those related to intercultural knowledge, skills, and abilities. Scholars can also zoom in on dissecting specific parts of the international sales process, such as how international salespeople generate leads, identify customer needs, present solutions, handle objections, and close deals. Similarly, future research can unpack the nature of intercultural negotiations and global sales service.

Customer perceptions of international salespeople. Although salespeople are inarguably responsible for interacting and working with customers, most existing sales research considers the salesperson's perspective. More recently, sales researchers have started calling for more work to explore customers’ perspective of salespeople (e.g., Bonney, Beeler, and Chaker 2022; Chaker, Beeler, and Delpechitre 2021). Similarly, we see an excellent opportunity for future research to adopt a customer perspective when exploring their interactions with international salespeople. For example, researchers could examine unique stereotypes of international salespeople (going beyond stereotypes of salespeople in general). While the sales profession has achieved an elevated status in the United States due to the professionalization and formalization of higher education in sales (Ahearne 2017), the same is not true across the world. Hence, it is possible, even likely, that sales and salespeople are not always positively perceived to be the same across cultures. Along these lines, research should investigate the role of cultural animosity and cultural intelligence and how customers view the different behaviors of international salespeople. Other possibilities include examining customer perceptions of the intercultural effects of persuasion and influence and what value they seek and receive from international salespeople. Determining how and why customers view international salespeople differently from those in their domestic market would be intriguing and valuable. Finally, given evidence of cultural differences that exist among men and women in sales functions across countries (Keillor, Thomas, and Hauser 2006), research could explore cross-cultural differences in customer perceptions of salespeople based on their gender.

Ethics of selling across cultures. Relative to other business professionals, salespeople are more prone to ethical transgressions; hence, sales ethics has received broad attention in the literature (Hartmann et al. 2023b). Despite the large body of literature on ethics in sales, much remains to be learned about ethics in selling across cultures. Due to apparent differences in norms and regulations from country to country (e.g., perceptions of bribery; see Wood 1995), and as selling becomes more inherently global, there is a heightened need for more knowledge regarding why and when international salespeople engage in unethical selling (Sridhar and Lyngdoh 2019). Other research can unpack implicit and explicit ethical violations and what international salespeople can do to overcome these kinds of breaches. Related to ethics, future researchers should also examine the distinct roles of morality and religiosity in international selling across cultures.

The article by Yu et al. (2024) exemplifies research in this special issue at the frontier of much-needed work on international salespeople and their customers. The authors examine whether live streaming enhances international sellers’ sales performance in domestic markets. By utilizing a longitudinal data set from a B2C digital platform in China, they find that live streaming use is positively associated with international seller sales performance and that the effect is stronger when the cultural distance between the selling firm and the customer is greater. To expand on their results, the authors suggest that future research consider other platforms or study multiple host countries to examine how platform attributes and institutional contexts influence the performance consequences of live streaming. In addition, the authors identify opportunities for more research that examines the implications of information quantity, the influence of information credibility on seller sales performance, and other seller attributes and customer contingency factors.

Customers in International Markets

Another often neglected perspective in international sales research revolves around customers in the international domain. This includes instances in which customers in the international domain interact with salespeople or managers (in the selling firm) located in the domestic market. This would include, for example, a customer in China who interacts with the salesperson and sales manager of a U.S.-based firm who reside in the domestic market. Research in this domain can be grouped into international customers’ interactions with the selling firm's (1) salesperson or (2) manager.

Interaction between international customers and salespeople

When it comes to the interaction between international customers and salespeople who reside in their domestic market, we identified three pressing topics for future research: (a) international and global account management, (b) selling in international customer markets, and (c) ethics of buying across cultures.

International and global account management. Key accounts are those deemed to be strategically important and major contributors to a selling firm's success. Although there is a robust literature base on key accounts and key account management (e.g., Homburg, Workman, and Jensen 2002; Mahlamäki, Rintamäki, and Rajah 2019; McDonald, Millman, and Rogers 1997), important differences exist between key accounts located in a domestic market versus those located in international settings (Schrock et al. 2018). Global key accounts are “typically multi-national customers which have a growing expectation of being supplied and serviced worldwide in a consistent and co-ordinated way” (Millman 1996, p. 632). Undoubtedly, as domestic companies continue to expand and pursue international customers, the extent to which some of these will become global key accounts necessitates more research in this area. For example, it would be fruitful to learn more about the differences between global and nonglobal key accounts, when they are identified, and the challenges they present. For example, what conflicts arise concerning who “owns” an international key account's local entity in a particular country, and how can these conflicts be resolved (e.g., through adequate sales control)? In addition, it would be interesting to discover how domestic salespeople employ key account management strategies and tactics to build, maintain, and grow relationships with a portfolio of international customers. Other future work can explore the nature of global key account planning, digital transformations, technology integration, and cross-cultural teamwork regarding global account management.

Selling in international customer markets. Much of the existing sales research stems from knowledge and insights derived from markets and societies referred to as WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic). Notwithstanding these important contributions, there is a pronounced need for more sales work considering other international markets and global customers since “most people are not WEIRD” (Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan 2010). Some limited research has considered unique aspects of international markets and business relationships, such as guanxi in China (Lee and Dawes 2005), et-moone in Saudi Arabia (Abosag and Naudé 2014), yongo in South Korea, and wasta in Egypt/Jordan (Zhang et al. 2021). Still, there is plenty of room to learn more about these concepts and other potentially relevant ones in international markets, such as the notion of jugaad in India (Agarwal et al. 2020). In addition, there needs to be more research to better understand international customers in developing and emerging markets (Sharma 2016), including the traditional BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries as well as the newly admitted countries of Argentina, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (Du Plessis, Miridzhanian, and Acharya 2023). Similarly, future research should investigate what it means to sell to international customers in politically unstable environments or even corrupt foreign markets, as well as markets affected by sales system shocks (Ahmadi et al. 2022; Cardy et al. 2022; Hartmann et al. 2023a).

Ethics of buying across cultures. Much as there is a need for research that looks at the ethics of selling across cultures, there is an equally vital need to examine the role of ethics when it comes to international customers’ purchasing behaviors. Considering that global purchasing practices differ across countries (Habel et al. 2020; Wiengarten and Ambrose 2017), it becomes imperative for sales scholars to investigate such practices and the degree to which they might pose ethical dilemmas. It could be the case that international purchasing and global sourcing practices (Trent and Monczka 2003) in one country are deemed unethical by a different country. This would entail future researchers to unpack the nature of ethics in the purchasing processes of international customers (and how they align with those of domestic salespeople) when it comes to concepts such as strategic purchasing management (Ellram and Carr 1994). Other avenues for future research might include looking at international customers’ individual characteristics (e.g., morality, religiosity) and how this might influence their ethical (or unethical) exchanges and interactions with salespeople.

In this special issue, Schmitt et al. (2024) investigate the value of social media for strengthening salespeople's connections with international customers (and international coworkers). They employ a multimethod, multistudy design to demonstrate how salespeople use social media to build customer relations by engaging in positive publicity and social media advocacy. They find that the greater the number of countries a firm operates in, the more significant the impact of social media advocacy on individual sales performance. Regarding future research, the authors suggest that other constructs that capture social network positions should be considered and that there is a need to tease apart differences in transitional economies. They also suggest that future research should focus on how salespeople navigate cultural, linguistic, and regional differences.

Interaction between international customers and managers

Regarding the interaction between international customers and a selling firm's managers residing in their domestic market, we identify three wide-ranging areas for more research: (a) international market research methods, (b) development and implementation of international sales enablement, and (c) international sales channel management.

International market research methods. As more managers adopt data-driven decision making (Brynjolfsson and McElheran 2016) and emphasize global expansion, there is an urgent need for a richer understanding of international customers. The growing availability of big data for customer relationship management (Del Vecchio et al. 2022) enables researchers to unearth when, where, and how managers can use various data to learn more about international customers. This will require managers and researchers to become familiar with and comfortable using alternative and unstructured data sources, such as text documents, audio recordings, and videos. Indeed, the rising availability of and the potential use of such data sources would overcome the challenges associated with collecting data for and conducting international sales research raised by Panagopoulos et al. (2011). Going beyond traditional customer surveys often used to gauge international customer perceptions and attitudes, future research should identify novel and distinct approaches to expand international market research methods. This can be extended to figuring out ways to exploit and implement sales analytics (e.g., Habel, Alavi, and Heinitz 2023) to predict international customer behaviors and outcomes. Along these lines, with the unfolding of different types of artificial intelligence (AI), such as generative AI, research can examine how managers can use machine learning algorithms to reveal unknown information about their international customers’ personalities, values, or churn estimates (Habel, Alavi, and Heinitz 2022).

Development and implementation of international sales enablement. An exciting topic that has started to receive attention in the literature is sales enablement (e.g., Lauzi et al. 2023; Rangarajan et al. 2020). Sales enablement is defined as “an overarching dynamic capability that aligns varied firm resources to benefit the customer journey and selling productivity” (Peterson et al. 2021, p. 543). To keep up with rapidly evolving customers, sales enablement provides firms with the information, content, and tools needed to sell better, deliver value, and differentiate themselves. Notable research by Peterson and Dover (2021) explores differences in sales enablement deployment adoption rates, constituents served, and services offered across three regions of the world, namely, Asia-Pacific, Europe, and North America. Future research should examine different ways that managers can utilize international sales enablement to add value to every interaction with international customers and how to move them more efficiently through the sales cycle. Research can also look at how firms can equip their salespeople to ensure that they are provided with the appropriate resources at the “right time” to meet the unique demands of international customers. Since sales enablement is a firmwide initiative and a business strategy, scholars can also explore the strategic and most effective ways to invest in and use technology, coordinate departments, and offer internal training to enhance the international customer journey. This might require more research investigating technology adoption (or lack thereof) across countries and cultures.

International sales channel management. An important consideration for firms is the strategic choice and management of the channels (e.g., online, offline, multichannel, omnichannel) that they want to use to communicate and transact with their customers (Kanuri et al. 2022). While a significant amount of literature addresses sales channel management, there needs to be more specific research attention and emphasis given to the nuances involved in the selection of sales channels by international customers. As part of this, future research should identify ways that managers can adapt and localize their channel management strategies to meet the needs of international customers and the impact of various sales channels on these customer outcomes. Going beyond the strategic choices made by managers, future research should consider the diverse attitudes, perceptions, and preferences of international customers with regard to their interactions with the selling firm. For instance, with the continued focus on digital transformations in sales (Guenzi and Habel 2020), future research can explore how international customers feel about e-commerce channels (Habel, Alavi, and Linsenmayer 2021).

Several articles in the special issue represent research on customers in the international domain. The first article, by Pourmasoudi et al. (2024), examines a critical methodological issue in sales research. These authors underscore differences between survey respondents from different countries related to how customers interpret response categories associated with survey items for a construct. Their findings indicate the need to correct for systematic differences (by using anchoring vignettes) in survey responses driven by cross-national differences. In terms of future research directions, they offer the need to consider recommendations from the literature concerning statistical power when conducting studies featuring anchoring vignettes and using these studies to extract meaningful insights from survey-related efforts involving comparisons spanning countries and varied cultural contexts.

Another article, by Friess and Kassemeier (2024), examines how a portfolio price increase affects the financial performance of B2B customer relationships and whether and how this effect varies between international customers from different cultures. Based on a large-scale field intervention study, these authors caution that uniform price increases across countries, without considering cultural factors, can have a detrimental effect on total sales. They suggest that as extensions of their work, future research should compare justified and unjustified price increases, their consequences for international customers, and the potential moderating impact of product, business, and industry characteristics. Other avenues for more research include investigating whether their study results differ when cultural dimensions of the sourcing firm and its headquarters match (or mismatch) and how customers from low power distance cultures react to portfolio price increases, to provide even more precise guidance for managers on international pricing decisions.

Finally, a research note by Schrock et al. (2024) finds that sales–supply chain management collaboration has a positive effect on international salesperson performance that differs across countries. Interestingly, the positive impact of such collaboration is amplified by country-level logistics friendliness. For the next research steps, they recommend that future research specify the antecedents of sales–supply chain management collaboration and step-by-step guidance for managers. Further research should identify salesperson-level and customer-level mediators and multiple outcomes to reveal potential trade-offs or unintended consequences.

Managers in International Markets

The final neglected perspective we highlight focuses on managers in the international domain who interact with salespeople or customers residing in the domestic market. An example would be a French sales manager being sent on an expatriate assignment to manage their firm's business unit in the United States. In this instance, the sales manager would be international, while the salespeople and customers would be domestic. As before, research in this domain can be divided into international managers’ interactions with (1) salespeople and (2) customers.

Interaction between international managers and salespeople

We propose three broad topical areas for future investigations on the interaction between international managers and salespeople: (a) cross-cultural differences in sales force management and leadership, (b) sales organizations after foreign direct investment (FDI), and (c) international differences in salesperson recruitment, assessment, and selection.

Cross-cultural differences in sales force management and leadership. We previously asked how international salespeople respond differentially to different types of sales control (see Topic 1a in Figure 1; e.g., Hohenberg and Homburg 2016). We now shift the perspective and ask whether, when, and how international managers manage and lead salespeople across national borders. It is easy to conjure up stereotypes of how managers of specific national or cultural backgrounds behave (e.g., the process-driven German, the can-do American, or the relationship-oriented Chinese manager). However, surprisingly, little is known about international sales managers’ behaviors and their effects on salespeople (Deeter-Schmelz, Lauer, and Rudd 2019; Murphy and Li 2012; Rouzies and Macquin 2003). This topic seems particularly important to study because international companies increasingly send sales managers on expatriate assignments to local entities and bestow substantial sales decision-making authority on them. Due to cross-cultural differences, these managers frequently face conflicts with local sales staff (Habel and Han 2018; Jassawalla, Truglia, and Garvey 2004). We hold that future studies elucidating such conflicts and providing guidance on avoiding or resolving them would provide significant value to sales organizations.

Sales organizations after FDI. Another reason why domestic salespeople find themselves affected by international managers is FDI. FDI refers to investments made by a firm or individual in one country into business interests located in another country. A notable example is the acquisition of German forklift manufacturer KION by Weichai, a subsidiary of the Shandong Heavy Industry Group from China (Plötner, Habel, and Schmitz 2023). When a firm from one country invests in a firm located in another, diverse management practices are integrated, which offers both opportunities and challenges for domestic sales organizations. For instance, an investor may impose specific structures, processes, or tools in a domestic sales organization. At the same time, FDI can facilitate access to new markets, enabling a sales organization to leverage the global networks and brand recognition of foreign investors (Plötner, Habel, and Schmitz 2023). While prior literature has studied various aspects of FDI (e.g., Bai and Liesch 2022; Fetscherin, Voss, and Gugler 2010), the implications for sales organizations have been largely neglected. Given that these implications are likely substantial, we expect sales practice to enormously benefit from academic research on this topic.

International differences in salesperson recruitment, assessment, and selection. Similar to the lack of research on international managers’ sales force management and leadership, little is known about how hiring processes are shaped by the national locale of the sales managers (Dugan et al. 2020; Honeycutt and Ford 1996). While global hiring practices have received some attention in the management literature (e.g., Allen and Vardaman 2017; Banks et al. 2019; Ma and Allen 2009), sales force hiring is special, requiring unique skills and considerations (Dugan et al. 2020). Sales force hiring often demands an understanding of the product or service being sold and a deep comprehension of the customer's cultural and regional nuances. This complexity is further amplified when sales managers operate in diverse national locales, where cultural sensitivity and local market understanding become crucial. Consequently, there is a need for more focused research on how sales managers across different national backgrounds adapt their hiring strategies to meet these challenges. This research could explore how cultural differences impact the recruitment, selection, and training of sales personnel and how these practices vary in response to different market demands and cultural contexts.

Interaction between international managers and customers

When it comes to the interaction between international managers and customers, we propose three areas for future research: (a) cross-cultural differences in legal requirements and regulatory compliance, (b) customer relationships after FDI, and (c) international differences in customer product customization and localization.

Cross-cultural differences in legal requirements and regulatory compliance. In the complex international business landscape, managers navigate through diverse customer-related legal requirements that span from health and safety to data protection and ethical governance. Examples include U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations, a vital aspect for businesses dealing with food, drugs, and medical devices, ensuring that their products meet rigorous safety and efficacy standards; the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (commonly known as GDPR), a critical mandate for protecting the privacy and personal data of individuals; and environmental, social, and governance criteria, which demand a commitment to socially responsible business practices, environmental stewardship, and ethical governance. Toward that end, an exciting avenue for future research relates to international managers’ compliance with such different legal requirements. For example, scholars can investigate how international sales managers learn about, perceive, and internalize these regulations. Relatedly, it can be determined how international sales managers balance the compliance requirements of different jurisdictions, especially when these regulations may conflict or vary significantly in stringency. Furthermore, the role of cultural differences in interpreting and implementing these regulations is crucial. Different cultural backgrounds may influence managers’ perceptions and approaches to compliance, potentially leading to variations in how regulations are prioritized and enforced. This aspect raises questions about the effectiveness of uniform regulatory frameworks across diverse cultures and legal systems. Exploring these areas further could provide valuable insights into developing more effective strategies for international managers to navigate the intricate web of global regulations.

Customer relationships after FDI. After receiving FDI, a supplier's ownership and top management can change its country of origin. It would be interesting to learn how customers react to such changes (Allman et al. 2016; Hewett and Bearden 2001). For example, does the country-of-origin image spill over to the firm image, and if so, after what time and how does this happen, and what role does the firm's history of a different country of origin play? Examining such questions would allow us to build more complete theories of the country-of-origin effect (e.g., Verlegh and Steenkamp 1999) and the impacts of FDI (e.g., Fetscherin, Voss, and Gugler 2010). The fact that there should be interesting effects is illustrated by the military defense industry, in which the ownership of a supplier is often a significant consideration. For example, defense ministries commonly conduct thorough background checks on their suppliers, examining the firm's ownership structure. If foreign investors own a substantial portion of the firm, this might trigger additional scrutiny or even disqualification, especially if the foreign investor comes from a country that is not closely aligned politically with the purchasing country (Horowitz 2018; Levine and Paretzky 2020). Topics like these have been largely neglected in the selling and sales management literature and constitute interesting avenues for research.

International differences in customer product customization and localization. International managers commonly face challenges when adapting their products to a domestic market. A notable example was British retailer Tesco's venture into the U.S. market under the brand “Fresh & Easy.” Tesco's Fresh & Easy stores were designed for daily shopping, which is common in the United Kingdom and Europe. However, the typical U.S. consumer prefers to shop in bulk, with groceries lasting two to three weeks. The store's emphasis on preprepared meals and many self-service checkouts did not align with U.S. consumer preferences (Yoder, Visich, and Rustambekov 2016). Building on this example, future ISSM research may examine how companies can better understand and adapt to varying customer behaviors and preferences in different international markets. This could involve exploring the nuances of local cultures, shopping habits, and customer expectations. For instance, what works in one country or region might not be as effective in another due to differences in lifestyle, income levels, dietary habits, or even social norms. Accordingly, future research should identify how international sales managers leverage local insights to tailor their products and services to meet the specific needs and preferences of customers in different regions.

Prioritizing the Agenda for Future Research

While the previous section outlined fruitful avenues for future research, an open question remains regarding the priority of our proposed topics relative to one another. To answer this question, we surveyed managers experienced with international selling or sales management. We collected 127 responses through a reputable online panel provider (M_age = 36 years; 67.7% male, 30.7% female, 1.5% other; see further sample characteristics in Table 1).

Table 1.

Sample Characteristics.

Characteristics	%
Gender
Male	67.7
Female	30.7
Other	1.5
Age (years)
Less than 30	31.5
30 to 39	39.4
40 to 49	15.0
50 to 59	12.6
60 or more	1.6
Tenure (years)
Less than 5	46.5
5 to 9	41.7
10 to 14	3.9
15 or more	7.9
Country
United Kingdom	33.1
United States	20.5
South Africa	15.0
Canada	7.9
Germany	5.5
Portugal	4.7
Italy	3.9
Australia	2.4
Poland	1.6
Rest of world	5.5
Industry
Retail trade	19.7
Finance or insurance	11.0
Professional, scientific, or technical services	10.2
Manufacturing	8.7
Wholesale trade	7.9
Other services	6.3
Health care or social assistance	5.5
Accommodation or food services	4.7
Information	4.7
Educational services	3.9
Transportation or warehousing	3.9
Arts, entertainment, or recreation	3.1
Construction	3.1
Management of companies or enterprises	3.1
Other	3.9

In the survey, we asked qualified participants to evaluate each of the identified research topics in terms of (1) their managerial relevance and (2) their need for more scientific knowledge (11-point Likert scales; 0 = “Very low,” and 10 = “Very high”). Table 2 reports the mean values per topic, and Figure 2 provides a graphical overview of the results, juxtaposing the mean values of each evaluation metric for a given topic. Regarding the “sweet spot” (the upper right-hand corner of Figure 2), the closer to the top right a topic is located, the more relevant it is, and the more participants lack scientific knowledge. We render topics in this range to be particularly worthwhile for academic inquiry.

Figure 2.

Prioritized Topics.

Table 2.

Participants’ Evaluations of Topics.

Topical Area	No.	Topic	Relevance	Need for Knowledge
Interaction between international salespeople and their managers	1a	International sales structures and roles	7.35	6.31
	1b	International sales force control systems	7.21	6.22
	1c	Lived organizational experiences of international salespeople	6.83	5.93
Interaction between international salespeople and their customers	2a	International selling processes	7.92	6.39
	2b	Customer perceptions of international salespeople	7.41	6.28
	2c	Ethics of selling across cultures	7.68	6.72
Interaction between international customers and salespeople	3a	International and global account management	7.61	6.42
	3b	Selling in international customer markets	7.77	6.62
	3c	Ethics of buying across cultures	7.18	6.29
Interaction between international customers and managers	4a	International market research methods	7.64	7.02
	4b	Development and implementation of international sales enablement	7.24	6.72
	4c	International sales channel management	7.38	6.28
Interaction between international managers and salespeople	5a	Cross-cultural differences in sales force management and leadership	7.05	6.06
	5b	Sales organizations after foreign direct investment	6.58	6.15
	5c	International differences in salesperson recruitment, assessment, and selection	6.71	6.19
Interaction between international managers and customers	6a	Cross-cultural differences in legal requirements and regulatory compliance	7.54	6.64
	6b	Customer relationships after foreign direct investment	6.80	6.14
	6c	International differences in customer product customization and localization	7.51	6.75

We draw three conclusions from Figure 2. First, and most importantly, respondents perceive all topics as relatively relevant (M > 6.5) and knowledge as lacking (M > 5.9). Hence, all topics we have identified seem worthy of academic inquiry. Second, a topic's relevance and need for more scientific knowledge are strongly correlated (r = .69). Not surprisingly, participants perceive a particular need for further knowledge on topics that they find to be relevant. Third, Figure 2 broadly reveals three clusters of topics with similar ratings. At the bottom left, there is a cluster of topics with relatively low (though medium to high in absolute terms) relevance and need for knowledge (which we label as “base topics”). Base topics consist of lived organizational experiences of international salespeople (1c), all the topics related to interaction between international managers and salespeople (5a–5c), and customer relationships after FDI (6b). It is plausible that these topics exhibit slightly lower priority for the average respondent because they tend to be context-specific (e.g., relevant particularly for practitioners directly affected by FDI).

The second cluster exhibits medium relevance and need for knowledge (which we label as “core topics”). These topics comprise international sales structures and roles (1a), international sales force control systems (1b), customer perceptions of international salespeople (2b), ethics of buying across cultures (3c), and international sales channel management (4c). For respondents, core topics might have a higher priority than base topics as they generalize more broadly to companies with international sales operations.

We label the last cluster, comprising topics with the highest relevance and knowledge requirement, as “star topics.” Star topics include international selling processes (2a), ethics of selling across cultures (2c), international and global account management (3a), selling in international customer markets (3b), development and implementation of international sales enablement (4b), cross-cultural differences in legal requirements and regulatory compliance (6a), and international differences in customer product customization and localization (6c). Collectively, these topics seem to largely address questions related to how salespeople can effectively build customer relationships in international settings. Building on these insights, we call on the sales academic community to prioritize and conduct future research on these particular international topics.

Concluding Thoughts

ISSM is very important for practitioners and is an interesting but challenging phenomenon for scholars to investigate. Academic literature on ISSM is still in its infancy (Baldauf and Lee 2011; Panagopoulos et al. 2011; Schrock et al. 2018). This special issue adds six notable contributions to the ISSM literature in which either salespeople are international (Madruga et al. 2024; Yu et al. 2024) or customers are international (Friess and Kassemeier 2024; Pourmasoudi et al. 2024; Schmitt et al. 2024; Schrock et al. 2024). Importantly, we also advance an interaction-based framework on ISSM that points to several fruitful avenues for future research. It is our hope that the articles appearing in this special issue and our interaction-based framework help stimulate future academic work on ISSM that can inform sales practice.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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