Calling and Well-Being Among Adults

Abstract

With a sample of 194 adults, approximately half of which were involuntarily unemployed, the present study explored (a) how calling related to core self-evaluations and life satisfaction, (b) whether core self-evaluations mediated the relation of calling to life satisfaction, and (c) how these relations differed for employed/voluntarily unemployed and involuntarily unemployed adults. Mediation analyses among the three variables were tested for each group. For both groups, calling was a significant, moderate predictor of core self-evaluations. Further, core self-evaluations was found to fully mediate in the link between calling and life satisfaction among the involuntarily unemployed group and partially mediate this relation among the employed/voluntarily unemployed group. The results of the present study suggest that higher levels of calling (regardless of employment status) relates to life satisfaction via a more positive sense of self. For the employed/voluntarily unemployed group, there may be benefits of a calling beyond positive self-evaluations.

Keywords

calling core self-evaluations life satisfaction mediation unemployment

Oliver Wendell Holmes once wrote, “Every calling is great when greatly pursued” ( 1920). This quote captures an American myth that every person has the freedom to pursue their life’s calling. To date, there is some understanding about the benefits of having a calling for adults; however, little is known about how these benefits differ for those who are currently unemployed. In the present study, we attempt to add to the growing literature on calling and well-being by examining (a) how calling relates to core self-evaluations and life satisfaction among an adult population, (b) whether core self-evaluations mediates the calling–life satisfaction link, and (c) how this group of relations differ for employed/voluntarily unemployed and involuntarily unemployed adults.

Scholarly interest on calling has been growing over the last 20 years. It has been theorized that a calling is most typically fulfilled via an occupation and can be resistant to environmental setbacks (Elangovan, Pinder, & McLean, 2010; Hall & Chandler, 2005). For some scholars, a calling has been viewed as religious or spiritual in nature, and for others, a calling has been viewed as simply aligning with a type of work that is personally fulfilling, meaningful, or purposeful (Baumeister, 1991; Hall & Chandler, 2005; Hardy, 1990; Steger, Pickering, Shin, & Dik, 2010). Combining key elements from previous literature, Dik and Duffy (2009) offered one definition of the construct, defining calling as “a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation” (p. 427). Across conceptualizations and measurements, individuals who view their work as a calling have been found to benefit from lower stress and depression, a more positive self-concept clarity, increased flow experiences, career maturity, work performance, work satisfaction, and overall well-being (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Duffy, Bott, Allan, Torrey, & Dik, 2012; Duffy, Dik, & Steger, 2011; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007; Treadgold, 1999; Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997).

Calling and Life Satisfaction

As the most studied component of subjective well-being, life satisfaction refers to an individual’s perceived level of happiness. Research investigating the relation of calling and life satisfaction is growing, with studies assessing this relation with both student and employed adult populations (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010; Duffy, Allan, & Bott, 2012; Duffy, Manuel, Borges, & Bott, 2011; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger et al., 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). For example, Duffy and Sedlacek (2010) examined the relation of calling and life satisfaction among more than 5,500 first-year undergraduate students. Here, calling was found to weakly correlate with life satisfaction, whereby a higher level of calling related to higher levels of satisfaction with life. A similar study by Steger, Pickering, Shin, and Dik (2010) investigated the relation of calling and life satisfaction among undergraduate students and included meaning in life as a mediator between the two. Calling was found to weakly correlate with life satisfaction, and a substantial part of this relation was due to increased meaning in life. Building off this study, Duffy, Allan, and Bott (2012) found the link between calling and life satisfaction among undergraduate students to be fully explained by life meaning and academic satisfaction.

Additional studies have addressed the relation of these constructs with samples of employed adults. Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, and Schwartz (1997) surveyed employed persons about how they view their work (as a job, career, or calling) and compared participants’ view of work to self-reported satisfaction with life. The authors found that the sample was evenly distributed among the job, career, and calling categories, and that individuals who viewed their work as a calling reported significantly greater life satisfaction than those who viewed their work as a job (e.g., a way to acquire material needs and not as potential for further rewards) or as a career (e.g., a way to acquire material needs and as potential for occupational advancement). Peterson, Park, Hall, and Seligman (2009) similarly investigated this construct among employed adults but included homemakers in the sample to address whether zest for life predicts life satisfaction, work satisfaction, and seeing work as a calling. The authors found evidence suggesting that individuals who have zest for life are more likely to view work as a calling, and people employed in professional positions were more likely to report higher zest than homemakers and clerical workers.

One recent study by Berg, Grant, and Johnson (2010) took an alternative path in exploring the calling and life satisfaction relation by focusing on unanswered callings. The authors investigated the relation of calling and life satisfaction through qualitative methods by asking employed adults about the presence of unanswered callings, feelings and thoughts about unanswered callings, and how unanswered callings have been fulfilled in work that does not directly address a personal calling. People in this study who were unable to fulfill their calling often reported higher stress and a sense of regret, and thus decreased satisfaction with life.

In sum, across seven studies, calling has been positively related to life satisfaction and zest. However, all studies evaluated this relation among employed adults with a moderate to high income, or among students who have not yet sought employment in an area of desired work (Berg et al., 2010; Duffy, Allan, et al., 2012; Duffy, Munuel, et al., 2011; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Peterson, Park, Hall, & Seligman, 2009; Steger et al., 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997).

Calling and Positive Sense of Self

Along with life satisfaction, having a positive sense of self is viewed as a critical component of well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Indeed, over the last 20 years, a rich set of literature has been established linking the sense of self, or core self-evaluations, to satisfaction with life (Heller, Judge, & Watson, 2002; Ito & Kodama, 2005; Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, 2005; Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998; Piccolo, Judge, Takahashi, Watanabe, & Locke, 2005; Rode, 2004). Theorists have suggested that viewing one’s career as a calling may be an ideal route to attaining positive core self-evaluations (eventually leading to a potential increase in life satisfaction; Elangovan et al., 2010; Hall & Chandler, 2005). Given this theoretical background, combined with calling being related to increased life satisfaction (Berg et al., 2010; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger et al., 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997), core self-evaluations may be one of the mechanisms that explains this link.

Though limited, several empirical studies have linked calling to a more positive sense of self. For example, Duffy and Sedlacek (2007) surveyed undergraduate students and found that viewing work as a calling had a strong, positive correlation with vocational self-clarity. A similar study by Treadgold (1999) investigated the hypothesis that engagement in meaningful work (an important component of calling) was related to clarity of self-concept. The authors suggested that individuals who are engaged in work that satisfies an inner calling experience less stress and depression and, thus, report having a stronger self-concept than individuals not engaged in meaningful work. Hirschi and Hermann (2012) examined the relation of calling to core self-evaluations and self-directed career management among undergraduate students, finding calling to positively correlate with each. Finally, Duffy, Allan, et al. (2012) examined the link of calling and core self-evaluations among undergraduates, finding the two to weakly, but significantly correlate.

These four initial studies form a foundation of exploring how calling relates to an individual’s sense of self. However, only two of these studies specifically examined core self-evaluations and none used adult samples. Given the strong theoretical tie between calling and sense of self (Elangovan et al., 2010; Hall & Chandler, 2005), exploring this relation empirically, and its potential role as a mediator between calling and life satisfaction, is important.

The Present Study

Building on previous research and theory that has linked calling to well-being, the goals of the current study are threefold. First, we will examine how calling relates to core self-evaluations and life satisfaction among an adult sample. Guided by previous research exploring the link between calling and life satisfaction (Berg et al., 2010; Duffy, Allan et al., 2012; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger et al., 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997), and research exploring the link between calling and core self-evaluations with college students (Duffy, Allan, et al., 2012; Hirschi & Hermann, 2012), we hypothesize that higher levels of calling will relate to higher levels of life satisfaction and more positive core self-evaluations. Second, we will examine whether core self-evaluations mediates the relation between calling and life satisfaction. Guided by theory suggesting that one of the reasons calling may lead to greater life satisfaction is a more positive sense of self (Elangovan et al., 2010; Hall & Chandler, 2005), we hypothesize that calling will relate to life satisfaction in part by promoting a more positive sense of self.

Third, we will examine how the relations of calling, core self-evaluations, and life satisfaction differ when our sample is split into groups of employed/voluntarily unemployed and involuntarily unemployed adults. Studying calling and well-being among unemployed persons is necessary, as recent estimates show 9.3% of Americans are unemployed (U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2010). In a meta-analysis of over 400 studies, McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, and Kinicki (2005) suggested that life satisfaction, in particular, can be negatively impacted during unemployment. Thus, psychological distress appears to be a common consequence during times of unemployment, as one’s need to work is unfulfilled (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005; Paul & Moser, 2006). Given this background, we hypothesize that the relation of calling to life satisfaction will be less pronounced for individuals who are involuntarily unemployed, given the notion that they do not have the opportunity to live out their calling. How the relation of calling and core self-evaluations differ remains a research question due to the lack of previous research.

Method

Participants

Participants were 194 adults with a mean age of 37.5 (SD = 12.55), were mostly female (62.9%), and were diverse in terms of race/ethnicity, with 94 (48.5%) identifying as White/European American, 75 (38.7%) as African/African American, 5 (2.6%) as Caribbean, 3 (1.5%) as Puerto Rican, 4 (2.1%) as Other, 2 (1%) as Mexican, 2 (1%) as Cuban, 2 (1%) as Central American, 2 (1%) as American Indian/Eskimo, 2 (1%) as South American, 1 (0.5%) as Cape Verdian, 1 (0.5%) as African/African American/Puerto Rican, and 1 (0.5%) as White/European American/Mexican. In terms of educational attainment, the percentages were as follows: some college (37.6%), college degree (32%), high school diploma (17%), graduate/professional school (6.7%), vocational school (3.6%), or some high school (3.1%). Finally, the income ranges of participants were less than $25,000 (41.8%), followed by $25,000–$50,000 (25.8%), $51,000–$75,000 (11.3%), $76,000–$100,000 (6.7%), $101,000–$125,000 (2.1%), $126,000–$150,000 (2.1%), $151,000–$175,000 (0.5%), and unreported (8.8%). Participants reported being employed full-time (22.7%), employed part-time (12.9%), unemployed by choice (10.3%), or involuntarily unemployed (54.1%). A majority of the unemployed participants reported that they are currently looking for work (83.8%), have been looking for work for an average of 9.34 months (SD = 10.05), and have been unemployed before (64.4%).

Procedure

Questionnaires were administered to English-speaking individuals 18 years and older from two main sources: four job fairs in the southeastern region of the United States and two local businesses in the Upstate New York area. These two types of recruitment were utilized to collect data from a relatively even number of employed and unemployed adults. Individuals who agreed to participate provided an e-mail address to the researchers to receive the survey electronically or completed a paper version of the survey while attending the job fair. Both forms of the survey included an informed consent form which provided a description of the study, and all participants were required to sign the informed consent form in order to participate. All participants were provided a $5.00 gift card to a regional supermarket or online retailer as compensation for participation, which was either mailed to participants who completed an electronic version of the survey or provided on location to participants who completed the paper version. The total response rate was calculated by dividing the number of people recruited to take the survey by the number of people who completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 54.5%.

Instruments

Employment status

Participants were asked to indicate their current employment status. For our analyses, we combined the employed full-time, employed part-time, and voluntarily unemployed groups in one group (N = 89) and compared them to participants who were involuntarily unemployed (N= 105).

Calling

The 4-item Brief Calling Scale (Dik, Eldridge, Steger, & Duffy, 2012) was used to assess the degree to which participants felt called to a particular career. The scale contains two, 2-item subscales measuring the presence of a calling and the extent to which an individual is seeking a calling; in the current study, only the presence subscale was used (Dik et al., 2012). These 2 items were I have a calling for a particular kind of work and I have a good understanding of my calling as it applies to my career. Participants answered items on a 5-point scale Likert type ranging from not at all true of me to totally true of me, with higher scores indicating a stronger identification with a calling for a particular line of work or career. Previous literature suggests that the 2 items of this measure are highly correlated, r = .76 (Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007). In the current study, the estimated internal consistency reliability was .82.

Core self-evaluations

The 12-item core self-evaluations scale was used to measure the following personality traits which underlie the core self-evaluations construct: self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, neuroticism, and locus of control (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2003). Participants answered items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, with higher scores indicating greater “positive self-concept.” A sample of an item from the measure includes, “Sometimes when I fail I feel worthless.” Judge, Erez, Bono, and Thoresen (2003) found the scores of this scale to be reliable and valid (α = .84), and this scale has been used in over 100 studies since its development. The scale has evidenced high convergent validity with the four core traits self-esteem, self-efficacy, Neuroticism, and locus of control (r _c = .50 to .87). In the current study, the estimated internal consistency reliability was .83.

Life satisfaction

The 5-item satisfaction with life scale was used to measure the degree to which participants were currently satisfied with their lives (Diener, Emmons, Larson, & Griffin, 1985). Participants answered items on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, with higher scores indicating greater satisfaction with life. A sample of an item from the measure includes, “The conditions of my life are excellent.” This scale has been used in hundreds of studies over the last 25 years, and Pavot and Diener (1993) reported good reliability and validity for the measure. In the current study, the estimated internal consistency reliability was .88.

Results

The goals of this study were to examine how calling relates to life satisfaction and core self-evaluations among adults and examine the degree to which core self-evaluations mediates the relation of calling and life satisfaction among employed/voluntarily unemployed and involuntarily unemployed adults. First, all variables were evaluated for significant skewness and kurtosis and appeared to have a normal distribution. As such, variables were kept in their original form. Second, correlations among calling, life satisfaction, and core self-evaluations were examined. Among the total sample, calling was moderately correlated with core self-evaluations (.37) and weakly correlated with life satisfaction (.28); life satisfaction also moderately correlated with core self-evaluations (.50) [See Table 1]. These correlations support the examination of mediation (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004).

Table 1.

Descriptive Information and Correlations of Calling, Core Self-Evaluations, and Life Satisfaction

	1	2	3
1. Presence of calling	—
2. Core self-evaluations	.37	—
3. Life satisfaction	.28	.50	—
4. M (employed/voluntarily unemployed group)	7.23	42.83	23.52
5. M (involuntarily unemployed group)	6.94	40.29	19.17
6. SD (employed/voluntarily unemployed group)	2.43	7.94	6.71
7. SD (involuntarily unemployed group)	2.50	7.57	8.08

Note. All correlations significant at the p < .01 value.

Third, we examined the mediating role of core self-evaluations in the relation of calling and life satisfaction, specifically exploring how these relations differed for employed/voluntarily unemployed and involuntarily unemployed adults. This allowed for us to explore our interest in core self-evaluations as a mediator and the differential relation of calling to core self-evaluations and life satisfaction while conserving the greatest statistical power by limiting our number of analyses. Using the Preacher and Hayes (2008) mediation statistical package for the social sciences macro, two separate mediation models were run and coefficients and direct paths were calculated for each group (see Figures 1 and 2). Path coefficients refer to the relation between the predictor and criterion variable, such that the expected changes in the criterion variable correspond to changes in the predictor variable (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). In both samples, calling had significant, direct paths to core self-evaluations for the involuntarily unemployed (.32) and employed/voluntarily unemployed (.41) groups. Core self-evaluations also had significant, direct paths to life satisfaction for the involuntarily unemployed (.54) and employed/voluntarily unemployed (.39) groups. Calling was significantly related to life satisfaction only for the employed/voluntarily unemployed group (.37). For the employed/voluntarily unemployed model, the total variance accounted for in life satisfaction by calling and core self-evaluations was 33%, while the total variance accounted for in life satisfaction by calling and core self-evaluations in the involuntarily unemployed model was 27%.

Figure 1.

Mediator model examining the direct and indirect relation of calling and life satisfaction for the employed/voluntarily unemployed group. Numbers in parentheses represent the indirect effect for the mediator variable and direct effect for the relation of calling to life satisfaction after accounting for core self-evaluations. *p < .05. **p < .001.

Figure 2.

Mediator model examining the direct and indirect relation of calling and life satisfaction for the involuntarily unemployed group. Numbers in parentheses represent the indirect effect for the mediator variable and direct effect for the relation of calling to life satisfaction after accounting for core self-evaluations. *p < .01. **p < .001.

The indirect paths from calling to life satisfaction, as mediated through core self-evaluations, were computed for both groups. Bootstrapping techniques have been recommended to examine the significance of mediational hypotheses (Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, 2007). As a result, bootstrapped mediation analyses with core self-evaluations as a potential mediator between calling and life satisfaction were performed with 2,000 bootstrapped samples of our data at a 95% confidence interval. Confidence intervals for two separate mediation analyses were calculated to test the significance of the model for both employment groups (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). If the confidence interval did not include zero, then we determined the mediation statistically significant at p < .05 (Shrout & Bolger, 2002).

For the employed/voluntarily unemployed group, calling had a significant, direct relation to life satisfaction after including the variance accounted for by core self-evaluations (.21). The bootstrapped analyses for the indirect effect also suggest that the model is significant for this group, suggesting support for the relation of calling and life satisfaction as mediated by core self-evaluations (SE = .06, CI = [.07, .29]). For the involuntarily unemployed group, analyses of direct effects did not suggest a significant relation between calling and life satisfaction after including the variance accounted for by core self-evaluations (.19, ns). However, bootstrapped analyses suggest statistical significance for the indirect effect for the relation of calling and life satisfaction as mediated by core self-evaluations (SE = .07, CI = [.06, .33]).

Discussion

The present study examined how calling relates to the core self-evaluations and life satisfaction of adults, whether core self-evaluations mediates the relation between calling and life satisfaction, and whether the relations of calling, core self-evaluations, and life satisfaction differ according to employment status. Previous research suggests a link between calling and life satisfaction (Berg et al., 2010; Duffy, Allan, et al., 2012; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger et al., 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997), with theory suggesting that having a calling is related to an increased sense of self and thus lead to increased life satisfaction (Elangovan et al., 2010; Hall & Chandler, 2005). However, the link between calling and core self-evaluations has only been evaluated among college students (Duffy, Allan, et al., 2012; Hirschi & Hermann, 2012) and this is the first study to evaluate these relations among both employed and unemployed samples. Our correlational findings support previous research and theory: Adults who view their career as a calling are slightly more likely to be satisfied with life and moderately more likely to have a positive sense of self.

These bivariate relations only tell a small part of the story, however, as a more nuanced picture is painted when examining how these relations differ according to employment status. For both groups, calling was a significant, positive predictor of core self-evaluations, supporting our correlational findings. However, calling was only a significant predictor of life satisfaction for the employed/voluntarily unemployed group. The weak link between calling and life satisfaction for the involuntarily unemployed group may be explained by the lack of an avenue to fulfill a calling through work, as work is unavailable.

For example, an individual may identify with a particular calling, but its salience to life satisfaction may be irrelevant as a result of being unemployed. This explanation may be supported by research that has suggested that professional people were more likely to view their work as a calling compared to homemakers and clerical workers (Peterson et al., 2009). From these findings, it could be assumed that homemakers and clerical workers may be similar to unemployed persons because they do not perceive an avenue through which a calling could be fulfilled. Additionally, involuntarily unemployed persons may not have the opportunity to modify unfulfilling work through the job-crafting techniques mentioned in the qualitative study by Berg et al. (2010), leaving them without this particular avenue to enhance well-being. Therefore, based on findings from Berg et al. (2010), individuals in the present study who are involuntarily unemployed may still report adequate life satisfaction because they may be exercising their calling through nonoccupational activities such as a hobby.

The indirect paths for each model offer an added piece of the puzzle regarding how calling relates to well-being. For both employment groups, the relation of calling to life satisfaction was due, in part, to calling leading to a more positive sense of self. However, for the involuntarily unemployed group, core self-evaluations fully explained the calling–life satisfaction relation; for this group, calling positively related to life satisfaction because of an increased positive sense of self. For employed/voluntarily unemployed persons, core self-evaluations only partially mediated the relation of calling and life satisfaction, which suggests that greater core self-evaluations is one reason why those with a calling are satisfied with life, but is not the only reason. Indeed, exploring other reasons (mediators) why calling relates to life satisfaction among employed persons is an important area for future research.

In sum, this is the first study where the relation of calling and well-being was explored among both employed and unemployed adults. For the involuntarily unemployed group, the primary benefit of a calling was a more positive sense of self. For employed/voluntarily unemployed adults, the benefit of a calling extended to both a positive sense of self and life satisfaction, indicating a potentially stronger impact of calling on the happiness of this population.

Limitations and Future Directions

The results and conclusions of this study need to be considered in light of a number of limitations, each of which may lead to directions for future research. First, this study only explored one potential mediator of the calling–life satisfaction link. Studies investigating other potential mediators (e.g., life meaning, vocational self-clarity) in this relation will be useful in understanding how adults, especially employed adults, can experience greater well-being from their calling. Second, our sample size was relatively small, especially when we divided the sample into two employment groups. Although the size was adequate for the number of analyses conducted, power analyses suggested that a perhaps more informative moderated mediation analysis would not be appropriate, given the number of participants in this study. Therefore, future studies should gather larger samples to increase power and be able to explore additional hypotheses.

Third, being that our study was cross sectional, we are prevented from drawing conclusions about the causal relationship among our variables. Additional research investigating these relations through longitudinal methodology may help us understand how the relation of calling and well-being relate over time, and specifically how relations among the variables may change through longer periods of unemployment. Fourth, though we presented a brief survey to participants in order to maximize the response rate at job fair recruitment events, this may have limited the power of our findings, as we used a limited number of items to measure correlations among three separate variables. Further, involuntarily unemployed participants were mainly recruited from the southeastern region of the United Sates, and most of the employed/voluntarily unemployed participants were recruited from the northeastern region of the United States. The geographical differences between these two groups should be taken into account when interpreting the results of this study. Finally, in the current study, we explored two well-being related variables. Undoubtedly, well-being is composed of much more than core self-evaluations and life satisfaction. Future researchers are encouraged to explore how calling relates to other well-being constructs, such as physical and social well-being.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: This research was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant agreement number: 01FP0930) and the European Social Fund of the European Union.

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