Career Transitions of Student Veterans

Abstract

As a result of the Post-9/11 G.I. Bill, colleges and universities across the United States are experiencing an increase in student veteran enrollment. There is limited information about student veterans making career choices, as it relates to their transition to college. This study examined what factors of career transitions (e.g., confidence, independence, support, control, and readiness) were predicted by career adaptability (e.g., control, concern, confidence, and curiosity) and occupational engagement within a developmental framework. Although career adaptabilities and occupational engagement did not predict the confidence and support aspects of career transitions, they did predict readiness. This suggests that if military service students are able to manage the idea of occupational transitions from military to college and willing to engage in specific occupational tasks, they may be ready to participate in career planning activities. Further theoretical and practical implications for researchers, clinicians, and university staff and administrations are also discussed.

Keywords

student veterans transitions military college adjustment

Student veterans encounter unique challenges as they return from the military and enroll in colleges and universities, including the transition from military service to campus and civilian life (Covert, 2002; Ursano & Norwood, 1996). With the passage of the Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Act of 2008, colleges and universities in the United States have seen an increase in the number of student veterans enrolling in higher education (Weeder & Wax, 2009). In a U.S. Government Accountability Office report released in 2011, it was estimated that more than 700,000 service members and veterans attended higher education and training programs aided by the Department of Veterans Affairs.

Although student veterans’ enrollment has increased, there is limited information about how the transition from military service to college life influences the career choices of student veterans. Making decisions about majors and careers are significant tasks students must undertake while enrolled in college. However, due to limited literature about student veterans’ career decision making, university administrators, staff, and faculty may not be adequately equipped to effectively handle this population’s career needs. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine what factors predict the career transitions of student veterans within a developmental framework.

Review of Literature

Previous research about veterans has primarily focused on their mental health concerns following deployment, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depression, and substance use (Ingala, 2012). For example, Tanielian and Jaycox (2008) reported that 20% of returning service members from Iraq and Afghanistan acknowledged that they experienced symptoms of PTSD or major depression. Hoge, Auchterlonie, and Milliken (2006) found that Army and Marine service members deployed to Iraq were more likely to report mental health concerns with approximately 19.1% meeting risk criteria when returning from deployment. Additionally, Grossman (2009) stated that 40% of service members may be suffering from various physical and psychological traumas.

Although many returning veterans present with mental health concerns, less than 50% of this population receives any mental health treatment (Tanielian & Jaycox, 2008; Tanielian et al., 2008). Barriers to seeking and receiving mental health services include limited access to care, negative attitudes toward seeking help, and the belief that seeking such services may have a negative effect on their career aspirations (Burnam, Tanielian, & Jaycox, 2009). Therefore, research has emphasized how to encourage returning veterans to seek both mental and physical help through Department of Veterans Affairs programs.

Although the literature has focused on how to assist service members with mental health concerns, there has been limited information on how this population transitions into a university setting. Colleges and universities across the United States are experiencing an increase in the presence of student veterans as a result of the Post-9/11 G.I. Bill (Weeder & Wax, 2009). This bill increased veterans’ educational benefits and has been a factor in increased student veteran enrollment in postsecondary education (Weeder & Wax, 2009). According to Radford (2009), active duty and student veterans represented approximately 4% of all undergraduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 2007–2008. Despite receiving benefits from the Post-9/11 G.I. Bill, student veterans face several challenges which put them at risk for not persisting with their college educations.

Bonar and Domenici (2011) highlighted three areas of research in the existing literature surrounding student veterans, which are as follows: (1) how to improve services for veterans with disabilities returning to college, (2) how the deployment cycle affects military undergraduate students, and (3) how campus services can assist these students. In a qualitative study of 25 university students who served in Iraq or Afghanistan, DiRamio, Ackerman, and Mitchell (2008) highlighted the importance of using a holistic approach to working with this population in a university setting. In particular, they emphasized the need for colleges and universities to use mentors, transitions coaches, and endorse a mandatory orientation for student veterans (DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008).

Previous research has also focused on the specific academic concerns student veterans encounter, such as transitioning from a structured military life to a nonstructured college atmosphere (Mares & Rosencheck, 2004) and struggling with academic preparation and engagement (Schupp, 2009). This population also struggles with assimilation to campus life, lack of support within universities regarding veterans’ benefits (Glasser, Powers, & Zywiak, 2009), and uncertainty regarding the translation of military experiences into academic credit (American Council on Education [ACE], 2011). In the 2010 National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), researchers found that student veterans were less engaged in academic activities than nonstudent veterans and felt that their campuses were less supportive toward their needs.

A survey conducted by the American Council on Education with 723 institutions found that over 65% of colleges and universities targeted new services toward student veterans after the Post-9/11 G.I. Bill was implemented (Cook & Kim, 2009). Approximately 57% of these institutions stated that they provided programs and services for service members and veterans (Cook & Kim, 2009). However, fewer than half of the schools surveyed with military and/or veterans’ programs offered opportunities for faculty and administrators to obtain information about the needs of military student populations (Cook & Kim, 2009). Despite the increase in services targeted for student veterans, many researchers have questioned whether college and university administrators and staff are adequately prepared to address the needs of this growing group especially because they have different experiences than the traditional college student (e.g., Burnett & Segoria, 2009; DiRamio & Spires, 2009; Rumann & Hamrick, 2010).

According to Marklein (2007), many college students will leave school for military service before completing their undergraduate degrees. When finished with their service tours, many will re-enter the university setting with the intent of finishing their degrees (Silverstein, 1994). However, this group will experience challenges such as readjustment to a university setting, college life, and coping with their service experiences (Silverstein, 1994). How student veterans and their schools address these challenges may influence their success while enrolled in higher education.

Although previous research has highlighted the mental health concerns of this transitioning population in addition to the challenges they encounter upon arriving on campus, there is limited research on how this transition influences student veterans’ career decision making and career choices. In their qualitative study, Krieshok, Hastings, Ebberwein, Wettersten, and Owen (1999) stated veterans who re-enter society after military deployments encounter challenges in terms of vocational identities. Through storytelling about their future vocational, living, and family aspirations, veterans were better able to conceptualize their plans and set goals for the future (Krieshok et al., 1999).

Utilizing the Social Cognitive Career Theory framework, Gravley (2012) examined the transition military veterans made when choosing to attend college and pursuing a new career, focusing specifically on career decision self-efficacy. Findings suggested that student veterans whose military careers aligned with their future career plans demonstrated significantly higher levels of career decision self-efficacy (Gravley, 2012). Although research is beginning to address the unique needs of this population, specifically the adjustment to civilian life, more research is needed to investigate the transition’s influence on student veterans’ vocational development.

Within the vocational psychology literature, there has been a focus on the constructs of career adaptability, occupational engagement, and career transitions for various populations, including college students. Career adaptability, as defined by Savickas (1997, p. 254), focuses on “the readiness to cope with the predictable tasks of preparing for and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments” which is prompted by changes in the world of work. Career adaptability is an essential skill for individuals, particularly college students, to have as it assists them in navigating through the world of work and the career decision-making process (Duffy, 2010).

Previous research on career adaptability has focused on the development and validity of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). For example, in Hirschi’s (2009) study examining German high school students, adaptability was found to be moderately correlated with an internal locus of control. Previous research has also suggested that individuals who feel a level of mastery over their lives may be more able to adapt to the changing world of work (e.g., Daniels, Clifton, Perry, Mandzuk, & Hall, 2006; Luzzo, Funk,& Strang, 1996; Weinstein, Healy, & Ender, 2002). Although this is a relatively new construct in vocational psychology, there is limited research on its applicability to college students (Duffy, 2010) and student veterans. By focusing on career adaptability, counselors can assist student veterans with developing a readiness to cope with a changing environment.

This study focused specifically on occupational engagement, the behavioral component, and emphasizes the need for individuals to experience and explore to make better career-related decisions (Krieshok, Black, & McKay, 2009). Examples of occupational engagement include having part-time jobs, volunteering, and speaking to others about one’s vocational development (Krieshok et al., 2009). Research on occupational engagement has focused on the development and validation of the Occupational Engagement Scale for both employed adults and college students (e.g., Cox, 2008; Krieshok et al., 2009). By further investigating this construct, university administrators, faculty, and staff can better inform career interventions for student veterans to promote career exploration during the transition from military to college life.

Career transitions are also important to consider with adults, college students, and student veterans. Previous research on career transitions has focused on employed adult workers who unexpectedly have lost their jobs (Heppner, 1998). Conceptually, however, some of the tasks associated with making career-related transitions (e.g., independence to make career choices and confidence around making these decisions) are similar across populations. Previous research has focused on how veterans make the transition from military to civilian life, specifically noting the difficulties in adjustment (e.g., Mares& Rosencheck, 2004). However, there is limited information on how these transitions are conceptualized within college campuses. It is important to note that since these constructs are relatively new in the vocational psychology literature, its applicability to college students, and student veterans in particular, is limited. Therefore, one of the purposes of this study was to examine whether or not these constructs could be investigated among student veterans.

Theoretical Framework

Although there are several theories that discuss the transition process, this study was conceptualized through a developmental framework. This study specifically examined the constructs of occupational engagement and career adaptability as it relates to student veterans’ transition from military to college life.

One significant theoretical framework that can better assist student veterans in making career-related choices is career construction theory (Savickas, 2005). This theoretical framework conceptualizes human development through contextual and cultural perspectives (Savickas, 2005). Additionally, the theory takes a contextual and cultural perspective on social adaptation (Savickas, 2005). Researchers utilizing career construction theory are interested in learning more about how individuals choose and use work (Savickas, 2005). As a whole, the theory focuses on how individuals build their careers by placing meaning in their work and their choices (Savickas, 2005).

Briefly, within this theoretical framework, there are three components: (1) life themes, (2) vocational personalities, and (3) career adaptability (Savickas, 2005). Life themes focus on the why aspect of vocational behavior, examining how one’s occupation can provide a context for human development (Savickas, 2005). Vocational personalities focus on one’s career-related abilities, values, and needs, which can be influenced by various contextual factors (Savickas, 2005). Finally, the component of career adaptability examines five key tasks that are associated with adaptation which include orientation, exploration, establishment, management, and disengagement (Savickas, 2005). An individual is conceptualized as being adaptive once he or she becomes concerned about his or her vocational future, demonstrates personal control over his or her vocational future, displays curiosity by exploring possible vocational selves, and increases one’s confidence in making career-related decisions (Savickas, 2005). These tasks are significant in one’s career development especially during the college years as students begin to think critically about their vocational futures and choices. It can also be argued that this theory can assist student veterans who are in similar developmental stages as other traditional and nontraditional college students. In particular, student veterans may encounter several similar challenges as their nonstudent veteran peers such as adjustment difficulties, major and career-related difficulties, and transitional concerns.

Current Study

Based on the limited literature about military service members making career choices as it relates to their transition, this study examined the variables of career transitions, occupational engagement, and career adaptability. The following research question and hypotheses were investigated:

Research Question 1: What factors influence student veterans’ career transitions from military to college?

Hypothesis 1: The concern, control, confidence, and curiosity aspects of career adaptability and occupational engagement would predict the readiness aspect of career transitions for student veterans.

Hypothesis 2: The concern, control, confidence, and curiosity aspects of career adaptability and occupational engagement would predict the control aspect of career transitions for student veterans.

Hypothesis 3: The concern, control, confidence, and curiosity aspects of career adaptability and occupational engagement would predict the confidence aspect of career transitions for student veterans.

Method

Participants

A total of 100 self-identified military service students (n = 65 male and n = 35 female) from a large public Midwestern university participated in this study. The participants’ average age was 30.89 (SD = 7.518, range = 19–50 years old). The majority of participants identified as juniors (n = 32), seniors (n = 28), graduate students (n = 20), sophomores (n = 13), freshmen (n = 5), and other (n = 2). Students in this study were predominately White/Caucasian (n = 83), Black/African American (n = 5), biracial or multiracial (n = 4), Hispanic/Latino/Latina (n = 2), Asian American (n = 2), American Indian/Alaska Native (n = 1), and other (n = 3). In regard to their marital status, participants identified as single (n = 54), married (n = 27), divorced (n = 15), separated (n = 1), and other (n = 3).

Participants were asked to self-report their current socioeconomic status which was poor (n = 17), working class (n = 49), middle class (n = 31), and other (n = 3). Most participants were raised in a suburban community (n = 46), rural (n = 30), urban (n = 21), and other (n = 3). For branch of service, the majority of participants were in the Army (n = 43), Air Force (n = 16), Navy (n = 13), Marines (n = 13), National Guard (n = 13), and Coast Guard (n = 1). Participants identified as Veteran (n = 73), Reservist or National Guard (n = 19), Active Duty (n = 1), and other (n = 7). The length of service ranged from 1.5years to currently in service. Ninety-seven participants stated that they were currently receiving Veteran Affairs educational benefits.

Eighty-five participants were full-time students at the time of the study while 14 stated they were part-time and 1 did not disclose student status. The majority of participants had already decided on a major (n = 95) and had transferred to this large public Midwestern university (n = 56). We did not specifically ask the participants if they had seen combat. However, 19 participants indicated that they had been deployed to countries including Afghanistan, Japan, Iraq, and Germany during their time of service.

Procedure

This project complied with all rules and regulations set forth by this university’s Institutional Review Board. Participants were recruited through a listserv (N = approximately 1,000) for military service students and their dependents at a large public Midwestern university. All military service students and their dependents at this university have access to this listserv upon enrollment in the university. E-mail messages inviting military service students to participate in the study were sent between the spring 2012 and fall 2012 academic semesters, excluding the summer semester. E-mails were sent to the listserv approximately twice a month. The link took participants to the online consent form and all data were collected through Qualtrics. Participants were eligible to enter into two raffle drawings of US$50 gift card incentives to participating.

Measures

Demographic information

A sociodemographic questionnaire, created by the authors, was administered to all participants to self-report information on gender, age, ethnic identity, year in college, transfer status, branch of military service, and use of educational benefits. Please refer to Table 1 for reliabilities of all scales and subscales, means, and standard deviations.

Table 1.

Reliability, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales and Subscales.

Scale	N items	a	M	SD
OES-S	14	0.88	3.16	0.73
CAAS Confidence	6	0.84	2.07	0.75
CAAS Control	6	0.83	2.20	0.77
CAAS Concern	6	0.85	2.14	0.70
CAAS Curiosity	6	0.88	2.41	0.78
CTI Confidence	11	0.82	4.30	0.82
CTI Control	6	0.65	3.87	0.88
CTI Support	5	0.74	4.91	0.93
CTI Independence	5	0.61	3.85	0.95
CTI Readiness	13	0.80	4.64	0.69

Note. OES-S = Occupational Engagement Scale for Students; CAAS = Career Adapt-Abilities Scale; CTI = Career Transitions Inventory.

Occupational Engagement Scale for Students (OES-S)

The OES-S is comprised of 14 items assessing occupational engagement via exploration and enrichment (Krieshok et al., 2009). Conceptually, the construct of occupational engagement encompasses both exploration, which involves gathering information that is needed to make a decision, and enrichment, which is participating in activities that assist individuals in learning more about themselves, the world of work, and the relationship between the two (Cox, Krieshok, Bjornsen, & Zumbo, 2014).The responses are scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (nothing like me) to 5 (very much like me). Higher scores indicate greater levels of occupational engagement (Cox, 2008). According to previous research with college students (e.g., Cox, 2008), the scale has adequate reliability (.85). The OES has been validated with various populations, including college students (e.g., Black, 2006; Hook, 2012), working adults (Scott, 2006), and creative students (McKay, 2008).

CASS—U.S. version

The CAAS is a 24-item measure assessing career adaptability (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The construct of career adaptability has been operationalized in various ways, including career decision self-efficacy, commitment to one’s career choice (Duffy & Blustein, 2005), outcome expectations regarding careers, career planning, and perceptions of educational barriers (Kenny & Bledsoe, 2005). Within this scale, however, the construct is geared toward assessing self and environmental exploration with an emphasis on examining available opportunities (exploration), looking at the future (planning), and making a career choice (deciding) (Savickas, 1997). Responses are scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongest) to 5 (not strong).

The CAAS consists of four scales, each with 6 items, measuring concern, control, curiosity, and confidence to manage occupational transitions (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The internal consistency estimates for the overall CAAS ranged from good to excellent (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). In a validation study with 10th and 11th graders in the United States, reliability estimates were found to be adequate with concern (.82), confidence (.90), curiosity (.84), and control (.80) (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012).

Career Transitions Inventory (CTI)

The CTI is a 40-item measure assessing the internal process variables that can serve as strengths or barriers when making a career-related transition (Heppner, 1991,1998). Responses are scored on a 6-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 6 (strongly disagree). The CTI consists of five factors: readiness (13 items), confidence (11 items), control (6 items), support (5 items), and independence (5 items) (Heppner, 1991). Reliabilities for these factors are the following: readiness (.87), confidence (.83), control (.69), support (.66), and independence (.83) (Heppner, Multon, & Johnston, 1994). The total scale α coefficient was .85 and test–retest for the total CTI over a 3-week period was 0.84 (Heppner et al., 1994). The CTI has been validated with adult populations making career-related transitions (Heppner, 1991).

Results

Data Screening and Preliminary Analyses

Preliminary data analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS Inc. 20.0. An a priori analysis was conducted using the program G*Power 3.1 to determine the needed sample size to achieve a specific significance level, desired statistical power, and desired effect size. Based on the multiple regression analyses (α = .05, power = 0.80, and medium effect size), the sample size required was 92. The initial sample size was comprised of 145 participants. However, participant cases with missing data were removed through listwise deletion (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), resulting in 103 participants. Other methods of deletion were considered, such as imputing missing item scores with means (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). However, this method was not chosen, as the majority of the 41 participants with missing data either did not complete two thirds of the survey or only completed the consent form (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

Data were also analyzed for outliers, normality, and linearity. Subscale scores were initially examined for univariate outliers resulting in three extreme scores (|z|>3.0) which were then removed from the dataset (N = 100; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). To check for multivariate outliers, the Mahalanobis D² was calculated entering the CTI subscales as dependent variables and CAAS subscales and OES-S total scale score as independent variables. Using the criteria Mahalanobis D² with a probability less than or equal to .001, data were screened to examine any potential outliers. Assumptions of multiple regression analyses were also checked including normality. Upon investigation, the CTI support subscale was not normally distributed and was dropped from the analyses as transformations did not create a normal distribution.

Multiple Regression Analyses

To answer the exploratory research questions, the researchers utilized multiple regression analyses. The purpose of using multiple regression analyses versus other available statistical resources (e.g., canonical correlations) was due to the exploratory nature of the study in gaining a preliminary understanding of the student veteran population on this Midwestern university campus. We were interested in learning more about whether these variables, which have been limitedly studied among college students, could be applied to a subset of college students specifically student veterans. Our hope was also that findings from the multiple regression analyses could provide us with information regarding specific types of interventions that may be beneficial to further explore for this population.

Table 2 refers to the multiple regression findings. Before conducting the multiple regression analyses, the CTI support subscale was removed due to not meeting the normality assumption and the CTI independence subscale was eliminated due to low reliability estimates. To answer the research question, three multiple regression analyses were used to test if the concern, control, curiosity, and confidence aspects of career adaptabilities and occupational engagement predicted career transition readiness, control, and confidence.

Table 2.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses Predicting Career Transitions Readiness, Control, and Confidence From Career Adapt-abilities and Occupational Engagement.

Predictors	Career transitions
	Readiness					Control					Confidence
	b	SE b	β	R ²	ΔR ²	B	SE b	β	R ²	ΔR ²	B	SE b	β	R ²	ΔR ²
Model 1				.213	.213**				.051	.051				.062	.062
CAAS Confidence	.474	.245	.244			.150	.158	.132			.347	.268	.179
CAAS Concern	−.588	.284	−.276			−.186	.183	−.148			−.453	.310	−.212
CAAS Control	−.678	.292	−.347			.333	.188	.290			.053	.319	.027
CAAS Curiosity	−.013	.296	−.007			−.318	.191	.269			−.352	.323	−.174
Model 2				.237	.025**				.051	.000				.064	.002
CAAS Confidence	.598	.253	.308			.158	.165	.139			.309	.280	.159
CAAS Concern	−.585	.281	−.275			−.185	.184	−.148			−.454	.311	−.213
CAAS Control	−.657	.289	−.336			.334	.189	.292			.046	.320	.024
CAAS Curiosity	.019	.293	.010			−.316	.192	−.267			.362	.325	−.179
OES	.153	.090	.178			.010	.059	.019			−.048	.100	−.055

Note. OES-S = Occupational Engagement Scale for Students; CAAS = Career Adapt-Abilities Scale.

**p < .01.

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict the overall career transition readiness from the concern, control, curiosity, and confidence aspects of career adaptability. The results of this analysis indicated that these subscales accounted for a significant amount of the readiness variability R ² = .213, F(4, 95) = 6.414, p < .01. A second analysis was conducted to evaluate whether the occupational engagement measure predicted career transition readiness over and above the career adaptability subscales. Occupational engagement accounted for a significant proportion of the career transition readiness variance after controlling for the effects of the career adaptability subscales, R² change = .025, F(5, 94) = 5.845, p < .01. Although the addition of the occupational engagement measure produced a significant change in R ², it is still a small practical effect difference.

Discussion

In this study, we examined factors that predicted the career transitions of student veterans specifically investigating aspects of career adaptability and occupational engagement. Our first hypothesis was supported with career adaptabilities and occupational engagement predicting the readiness aspect of career transitions. However, our second and third hypotheses were not supported.

Conceptually, it makes sense that career adaptabilities and occupational engagement predict the readiness aspect of career transitions. If a student veteran is able to manage the idea of an occupational transition from military to college and willing to engage in specific occupational engagement tasks, he or she will also be ready to accomplish the tasks needed to achieve career planning activities.

The transition from military to college also requires support from different individuals in addition to a student veteran exhibiting confidence to make the transition. For instance, student veterans may be engaging in how to effectively manage the transition and exploring options, but may not have the support or confidence to follow through. This lack of confidence may be associated with previously developed attitudes about career planning. Additionally, they may not be confident in career planning activities if this is a new area of exploration. According to ACE (2011), military experiences may translate into academic credit at most universities. However, if student veterans are not aware of this and other resources and benefits, they may lack a sense of confidence in making the transition to college.

Based on our findings, one can also argue that these constructs would yield similar results among college students that do not identify as student veterans. One can argue that there are several similarities among college students and student veterans such as difficulties adjusting to a college environment, difficulties choosing careers and majors, and navigating through new environments. However, it is difficult to arrive at this conclusion without there being a comparison group.

Theoretical Contributions

Our study contributes to existing research as there is limited theoretical information regarding this population. Our investigation was conceptualized from a developmental framework focusing specifically on Savickas (2005)’s career construction theory. Although our findings provide some insight into aspects of occupational engagement, career exploration, and career adaptability, there is also a need to incorporate other developmental factors such as student veterans’ experiences in choosing majors and careers. Student veterans may not have fully developed or considered the specific tasks associated with occupational engagement or career adaptability. Therefore, more emphasis should be placed on how to develop these skills.

There is also a separate framework already in place for service members in the military which may better explain their transitional process and career decision making. For instance, service members may already have tasks assigned to them while in the military which may hinder the self-exploration piece of career decision making once they get to campus. Further, the transition from military to college may not be a voluntary transition thus making aspects of managing occupational transitions more difficult.

Practical Implications

The findings noted in this study have several practical implications about how to work with this transitioning population. Previous research has highlighted the need for veteran-specific services on university campuses such as implementing orientations and courses for this group (Cook & Kim, 2009). Our findings support this, suggesting that if student veterans are able to demonstrate tasks associated with career adaptability and occupational engagement, they will feel more ready to accomplish the activities they need to achieve their overall career goals. Specifically, interventions should be designed to increasing student veterans’ confidence and identifying sources of support for those making the transition. Increasing confidence and providing support can be accomplished through the development of veteran-specific student organizations, courses specifically addressing this population’s needs, and veterans’ offices that can help this group navigate through the campus environment. These activities can also assist student veterans in feeling more in control of their transition to campus, especially if returning to college is not voluntary or within their control.

In particular, research has suggested that student veterans already do not feel connected to their campuses which can be a barrier in a successful transition (NSSE, 2010). If student veterans do not feel supported, they will be less likely to seek out resources pertaining to majors and careers. Clinicians, university staff, and administrators can design interventions that facilitate support such as through veteran-specific courses, group counseling, and workshops to increase feelings of community within this group.

Limitations

This study serves to fill a gap in the existing literature about student veterans’ transition from military to college life. Among the few studies that have researched student veterans, the majority have focused on qualitative data (e.g., Krieshok et al., 2009). However, this study is not without limitations. First, our measures were limited, as they relied on participants’ self-report. As such, observed associations between career transitions, career adaptabilities, and occupational engagement may be inflated by common method variance (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). Additionally, none of these measures have been validated with student veterans. Although the reliability estimates for these measures suggest they are empirically testable with this particular population, further research in areas of validity need to be conducted with student veterans.

Second, our study is unable to generalize its findings to the larger student veteran population. Because data collection was limited to one institution, our findings are not applicable to all student veterans on college campuses. This investigation was also limited due to its reliance on web-based data collection methods. Although students typically reside in computer-friendly environments, it is easy to ignore an e-mail message asking for study participation which may increase selection bias.

Future Directions

Based on previous research, theoretical contributions, practical implications, and findings from our study, it is evident that further investigation is warranted in this area. We make the following suggestions for the direction of future research in two primary areas.

First, research should examine the specific aspects of the transition from military to college, particularly taking into consideration military culture. Cultural differences between military and college life may provide researchers, university administrators, and clinicians with additional tools to better assist this population in transition. Interventions can also focus on the similarities and differences between military and campus life, highlighting transferrable skills from military service to college. By further investigating the military culture and how it translates to life outside of service, universities can assist student veterans in becoming more engaged in academics and assimilate to campus life. It may be beneficial in the future to investigate how this sample compares with overall student population of veterans at other universities to determine whether there are any similarities or differences between veterans at this institution and the broader population.

Our second recommendation is in regard to methodology. Although there are several qualitative studies about career choices of student veterans, there is limited quantitative data regarding this transition and their overall career decision-making process. Future research would benefit from addressing the concerns of student veterans from a mixed methods approach, investigating how student veterans conceptualize their transition to campus life and developing specific interventions tailored around their needs. Additionally, there are no known scales assessing the career needs of student veterans in transition. By developing such a scale, researchers would gain a better understanding of how to conceptualize this population and develop interventions to promote academic success and adjustment to campus and college life.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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