Relation of Reinforcement Sensitivity on Vocational Interest and Self-Efficacy

Abstract

Using the constructs of the behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS), as defined by the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality, the purpose of this study was to determine new linkages between personality traits and interest/self-efficacy across Holland’s hexagon. Specifically, it was proposed that (a) the BAS would positively relate to global liking of vocational interest and negatively relate to global disliking of interest; (b) the BAS would positively relate to enterprising interest and social/enterprising self-efficacy; and (c) the BIS would negatively relate to realistic interest and self-efficacy in a sample of 265 college students. The hypotheses were mostly supported. The BAS was found to be meaningfully positively related to (a) global liking of vocational activities, (b) enterprising interest, and (c) social and enterprising self-efficacy. The BIS was found to be meaningfully negatively related to realistic interest but not realistic self-efficacy. Limitations, implications, and future research are discussed.

Keywords

behavioral activation system behavioral inhibition system enterprising interest realistic interest social and enterprising self-efficacy

Vocational interest and self-efficacy are widely regarded as the most significant factors that impact the process of vocational choice (Larson, 2012). These constructs are believed to determine what occupations a person is motivated to pursue and avoid (Betz & Borgen, 2000; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994; Rottinghaus, Larson, & Borgen, 2003), and they also have proven predictive of domain-specific ability/performance (e.g., Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991).

Despite the recognized roles of interest and self-efficacy in career choice, however, the underlying mechanism that leads to the aforementioned vocational constructs remains unclear (Hansen, Sullivan, & Luciana, 2011; Larson, 2012). Multiple theories regarding vocational choice have suggested that personality traits may be important in how people behave once their choices have been made (Larson & Borgen, 2006; Sullivan & Hansen, 2004) and suggest that certain personality traits are related in meaningful ways to vocational interest and vocational self-efficacy (Barrick, Mount, & Gupta, 2003; Larson & Borgen, 2006; Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002; Nauta, 2007). Thus, examining a novel model of personality, particularly one with strong neurobiological underpinnings, alongside these constructs in the prediction of college student career choice would fill gaps in vocational and personality psychology by clarifying underlying mechanisms in career choice and ensuing behaviors.

Personality is defined as a set of stable characteristics (which are often referred to as personality traits) that cause a person to think and behave in consistent ways throughout their life (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2005), including how they behave in activities or occupations that they have chosen. Other authors have conceptualized that personality may play a part in the development of interest and self-efficacy. For instance, social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994) suggests that personality plays a significant role in the development of vocational self-efficacy and interests because of predisposed motivations toward some activities and away from others. Studies that examined the intersection between personality traits and vocational interests and self-efficacy have predominantly conceptualized the overlap through the lenses of two mainstream models of personality: the Big Five and the Big Three (Tellegen, 2000). As discussed by Larson (2012), the use of alternative theories of personality may allow for a better understanding regarding potential mechanisms underlying the link between some personality traits and vocational interest/self-efficacy. Recently, there have been several neurobiological models that conceptualize an approach tendency and an avoidance tendency in people that may characterize a predisposition to seek out rewards and to avoid punishment. Specifically, in this study, the authors chose one of those models, namely, Gray’s (1991) reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), to conceptualize approach and avoidant behaviors.

RST

RST is a novel view of personality, as it is one of the first to incorporate biological underpinnings and an individual’s subjective mood state to explain how behavior and motivation manifests in an individual’s everyday life (Gray, 1991; van der Linden, Beckers, & Taris, 2007). Simply put, RST explains how and why individuals react to punishing and rewarding stimuli in their lives (Corr, 2004). Although RST has been present in the literature since 1970, increased understanding of neurobiology has allowed for an increase in research using this theory in recent years (van der Linden et al., 2007).

In the original conception of the theory, Gray (1970, 1991) described two main constructs responsible for explaining individual differences in how a person reacts to the environment: the behavioral activation system (BAS) and the behavioral inhibition system (BIS). When considering the literature, the terms “sensitivity to reward” and “sensitivity to punishment” are often used interchangeably with the BAS and BIS, respectively (e.g., Corr, 2004; Gable, Reis, & Elliot, 2000; van der Linden et al., 2007). For the purposes of this article, the terms BAS and sensitivity to reward were used interchangeably, as were BIS and sensitivity to punishment.

BAS

The BAS is the reward sensitivity portion of RST and is presumed to be the neurobiological system that is responsible for motivating an individual to engage in rewarding activities and stimuli (Gray, 1991; van der Linden et al., 2007). Research on the structures that house the BAS has identified links to structures that also relate to extroversion and positive incentive motivation (Read et al., 2010). These structures, identified as the dopaminergic reward system, include the ventral tegmentum, ventral pallidum, and nucleus accumbens and are connected by dopaminergic pathways (Depue & Collins, 1999; Depue, Luciana, Arbisi, Collins, & Leon, 1994; Gray, 1991; Read et al., 2010).

Research has shown that individuals with high scores versus low scores measuring the BAS were more sensitive to positive stimuli and put more effort, both sustained and short-term, into activities where rewards were present (Corr, 2004; Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Jackson, 2001). The BAS has also been positively related to positive mood states such as happiness and hope (Gray, 1991; Smillie & Jackson, 2005; van der Linden et al., 2007).

BIS

The BIS is the punishment sensitivity portion of RST and is presumed to be the neurobiological system that is responsible for motivating an individual to avoid or prevent activities and stimuli that the person interprets as punishing (Gray, 1991; van der Linden et al., 2007). The neurobiological aspects of the BIS are related to the anxiety systems of the brain, including the septo-hippocampal system and amygdala (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; McNaughton & Gray, 2000; Smillie, 2008; van der Linden et al., 2007). These structures are impacted by the release of serotonin and noradrenaline, which occurs when someone is presented with a negative stimulus (Smillie, 2008). As these structures are exposed to serotonin and noradrenaline, increased reactivity over time increases an individual’s trait anxiety (Smillie, 2008). Researchers describing other personality constructs, such as neuroticism (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and negative emotionality (Tellegen, 1982), have also conceptualized this approach–avoidance aspect by recognizing these same neurobiological structures.

Research has shown that individuals high in BIS activation will show greater response to potentially threatening stimuli or situations that are likely to have negative outcomes, such as interpersonal conflict (Gable et al., 2000; van der Linden et al., 2007). The response might include immediate avoidance of the stimuli or activity in terms of withdrawal as well as developing a more cautious approach toward situations where future negative outcomes are expected (Gray, 1991). Multiple studies have shown that individuals with high versus low sensitivity to punishment are less likely to respond to rewards (e.g., McNaughton & Corr, 2004), and the former versus the latter group puts forth greater effort to avoid situations that may result in interpersonal conflict, material loss, or social disapproval (Elliot & Thrash, 2002; Gray, 1991).

RST and Vocational Constructs

Despite the recent increase of studies related to RST over the last decade, only a handful of studies have investigated the intersection between RST and the world of work (Gable et al., 2000; Hansen et al., 2011; Jackson, 2001; van der Linden et al., 2007), and few of them have sampled college students (the population of interest in this study). Of these studies, all but one focused on career outcomes (i.e., work stress, job performance). For instance, several studies found that individuals who have a high versus low sensitivity to reward gave more effort to an occupational task when provided with monetary incentive (Gable et al., 2000; Jackson, 2001). Another study found that level of work stress positively correlated with the BIS but was not significantly correlated with the BAS (van der Linden et al., 2007). These findings suggest that both the BIS and BAS influence an individual after they have made an occupational choice.

In other words, both the BIS and BAS appear to influence motivation for activities present within the individual’s chosen career. As discussed by Larson and Borgen (2006), the predisposed tendencies of personality are thought to influence an individual before and after an occupational choice has been acted upon. This is consistent with the belief that personality generally influences approach or avoidance of occupational activities or situations (Hansen et al., 2011; Larson & Borgen, 2006), with prechoice behaviors having significant interaction with vocational interest and self-efficacy. Therefore, the findings related to RST and vocational outcomes provide further validation for using the BAS and BIS as an alternative personality construct for better understanding the development of vocational interest and self-efficacy.

To date, only one study has investigated the relation of the approach disposition with vocational interest. Hansen, Sullivan, and Luciana (2011) found support for their hypothesis that the tendency toward an approach disposition would relate positively to global liking of vocational interests and would relate negatively to global disliking of vocational interests. Hansen and colleagues defined an approach disposition as a composite including the BAS as well as extroversion and positive emotionality (Tellegen, 2000). Hansen et al. also provided evidence that facets of extroversion and positive emotionality differentiate approach motivation into communion (i.e., social closeness and warmth) and agency (i.e., assertiveness, social potency) components. The BAS, with its focus on sensitivity to reward, is aligned with the agentic aspect of approach motivation that Hansen and colleagues examined. Hansen et al. showed that the communal component of approach motivation related to social interest but not enterprising interest, while the agentic component of approach motivation related to enterprising interest but not social interest. This differentiation of social and enterprising interest by examining personality dispositions was also supported by Staggs, Larson, and Borgen’s (2003) meta-analyses, which showed that social potency was related to enterprising interest but not social interest, while social closeness was related to social interest but not enterprising interest.

Hansen and colleagues (2011) also found support for their corresponding hypothesis that the avoidant disposition was unrelated to vocational interest across Holland’s (1997) hexagon. Avoidant disposition was defined as a composite of related factors, which included the BIS as well as neuroticism and negative emotionality (Tellegen, 2000). Hansen et al. did not examine vocational self-efficacy.

The overall purpose of this investigation was to build upon Hansen et al.’s (2011) work by focusing exclusively on sensitivity to reward and sensitivity to punishment as they relate to vocational interest and self-efficacy. More specifically, we had four aims. First, we wanted to investigate how sensitivity to reward as conceptualized in RST relates to global liking and global disliking of vocational activities. It would seem that a temperament that is sensitive to rewards would tend to be more likely to endorse vocational activities and would tend to be less likely to dislike vocational activities.

Second, we intended to ascertain if sensitivity to reward was linked to enterprising interest but not social interest. Using a composite measure to conceptualize approach motivation, Hansen and colleagues (2011) did not report unique relations of Gray’s (1991) RST constructs with vocational interests. Although this composite measure was successful in providing a broad understanding of how approach motivation related to enterprising and social interest, a closer examination of sensitivity to reward may show it to be aligning with enterprising interest but not social interest (Staggs, Larson, & Borgen, 2003; Sullivan & Hansen, 2004). This assertion is consistent with Gable, Reis, and Elliot (2000) and Jackson (2001) who showed that people with high versus low sensitivity to reward gave more effort to an occupational task when provided with monetary incentives.

Third, we wanted to examine vocational self-efficacy, also referred to as vocational confidence, across Holland’s (1997) hexagon, as it may relate to sensitivity to reward. Evidence has accumulated that shows that vocational self-efficacy is influential in the choices students make about educational aspirations, educational major, and career options (e.g., Larson, Wei, Wu, Borgen, & Bailey, 2007; Rottinghaus, Lindley, Green, & Borgen, 2002). Moreover, the linkages between corresponding domains of vocational self-efficacy and vocational interest across Holland’s hexagon have been well documented in meta-analyses (e.g., Rottinghaus, Larson, et al., 2003; Sheu et al., 2010). Moreover, prior work has demonstrated that vocational self-efficacy significantly related to personality traits identified by Hansen et al. (2011) as defining approach motivation. These confidence/personality relationships are as follows: (a) overall mean vocational confidence with positive emotionality, social potency, and social closeness (Larson & Borgen, 2006); (b) social confidence with positive emotionality, social closeness (Larson & Borgen, 2006), and extroversion (Larson et al., 2007; Rottinghaus et al., 2002); and (c) enterprising confidence with positive emotionality, social potency (Larson & Borgen, 2006), and extroversion (Larson et al., 2007; Rottinghaus et al., 2002). It would seem reasonable that mean overall confidence, social confidence, and enterprising confidence would be related to the BAS.

Fourth and finally, we wanted to explore sensitivity to punishment and its potential linkage with realistic interests and realistic confidence. There is some evidence that the BIS or sensitivity to punishment may include a specific personality trait, namely, harm avoidance, defined as the tendency to prefer and choose safe, boring activities over exciting, dangerous activities (Waller, Lilienfeld, Tellegen, & Lykken, 1991). Hansen and colleagues (2011) conceptualized avoidance motivation as a composite including negative emotionality, neuroticism, and Gray’s (1991) BIS. They showed that this composite did not relate to vocational interests. However, we purport that harmavoidance is overlapping with Gray’s sensitivity to punishment. Moreover, sensitivity to punishment may be linked then to realistic confidence and interest based on empirical studies showing linkages between harmavoidance and realistic interest and specifically to mechanical interest and military activities (Staggs et al., 2003, meta-analyses) and realistic confidence (Larson & Borgen, 2006, across four studies).

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: The BAS will have a meaningful positive relationship with global liking of interests and a meaningful inverse relationship with global disliking of interests. Correlations near or above an absolute value of .20 were considered meaningful for this study using criteria previously used by Larson and Borgen (2006) and because of a correlation of .3 is a medium effect (Cohen, 1992) which seemed too stringent and a small effect of .1 seems clinically irrelevant.

Hypothesis 2: The BAS will be meaningfully positively correlated with enterprising interests and will have no meaningful relationships with the other domains of vocational interest.

Hypothesis 3: The BAS will be meaningfully positively correlated with social and enterprising self-efficacy and will have no meaningful relationships with the four other domains of vocational self-efficacy.

Hypothesis 4: The BIS will be meaningfully negatively related with realistic interest and realistic self-efficacy and will have no meaningful relationships with the other five domains of vocational interest or vocational confidence.

Method

Participants

Data for this study were collected from 324 undergraduate students at a large Midwestern University. Students were recruited from introductory psychology courses over a span of four semesters. Responses from 59 participants were eliminated due to incomplete or invalid responses. The final sample was 265 participants, with 100 individuals who identified as male and 165 who identified as female. The participants had an average age of 19.62 years (SD = 2.81) and were 78.9% European American, 4.5% Asian American/Pacific Islander, 3.8% Latino/a American, and 2.3% African American. There were 12 participants (4.6%) who identified as multiracial, and 14 participants (5.3%) identified as international students. One participant (0.4%) chose not to indicate their race/ethnicity. All participants were undergraduate students, consisting of 40.4% first-year students, 28.7% second-year students, 14.3% third-year students, 12.8% fourth-year students, and 3.8% were students who have had 5 or more years of college education.

Measures

BIS and BAS

The BIS and the BAS Scales (Carver & White, 1994) are the most commonly used measures for investigating activation levels of the BAS and BIS (McNaughton & Corr, 2004; van der Linden, et al., 2007). Comprised of a two-factor structure (BIS Scale and BAS Scale), there are 20 4-point Likert-type items (strongly disagree to strongly agree) concerning reinforcing and punishing stimuli/situations, with higher scores indicating greater sensitivity to reward and punishment, respectively. The BIS Scale is composed of 7 items (e.g., “Criticism or scolding hurts me quite a bit”), and the BAS scale is composed of 13 items (e.g., “When I’m doing well at something, I love to keep at it”). A confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor structure comprised of the BIS Scale and the BAS Scale (Jorm et al., 1998). Cronbach’s α coefficients for both the BIS and the BAS Scales were acceptable (αs = .76 and .83, respectively; Jorm et al., 1998). The Cronbach’s α was .76 for the BIS and .81 for the BAS in the present sample.

Vocational interests

The 2005 Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Donnay, Thompson, Morris, & Schaubhut, 2005) operationalized vocational interests by providing operational definitions of the following: (a) global like/dislike, (b) Holland’s Big Six (i.e., the general occupational themes [GOTs]), and (c) 30 more specific domains of interest (the basic interest scales). The SII has 291 5-point Likert-type items that reflect vocational interest (e.g., occupations, subject areas, work activities, leisure activities), with higher scores indicating more interest.

Global like/global dislike was operationalized on the SII as the percentage of the 291 items that the participants on average endorsed as strongly like (i.e., endorsing 5 on the 5-point Likert-type scale) or as strongly dislike (endorsing 1 on the 5-point Likert-type scale). There were five response types (strongly dislike, dislike, indifferent, like, and strongly like). On average, the participants endorsed 21.56% of the 291 items as strongly dislike (SD = 20.6) and 10.69% of the 291 items as strongly like (SD = 8.81) as strongly like.

Holland’s RIASEC Big 6 was operationalized by the six GOTs which include realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), and conventional (C). As reported in the 2005 SII manual (Donnay et al., 2005), the combined gender standardized mean for each of the GOTs is 50 (SD = 10), although some means vary by gender by more than half of a SD (Bailey, Larson, Borgen, & Gasser, 2008). Donnay et al. (2005) reported Cronbach’s α coefficients for the SII subscales ranging from .90 to .95. Test–retest reliability after 8–23 months ranged from .80 to .92 in a sample of 85 adults. The GOTs have shown to be significantly predictive of occupational membership regardless of gender, race, and ethnicity (Lattimore & Borgen, 1999).

Specific vocational interests were operationalized by the 30 basic interest scales which are the more specific dimensions of interest that are considered to be housed within each of the six Holland’s RIASEC themes. The combined gender standardized means were 50 (SD = 10). The reported test–retest reliability across the basic interest scales range from .78 to .89 (Donnay et al., 2005). Acceptable internal consistency estimates and construct validity estimates have been widely reported across the 30 basic interest scales (see Donnay et al., 2005). Due to the proprietary nature of the SII, the αs of the present sample were unable to be obtained.

Vocational self-efficacy

The Skills Confidence Inventory (SCI; Betz, Borgen, & Harmon, 2005) operationalized self-efficacy or confidence in the six general confidence themes (GCTs) that represent Holland’s six RIASEC themes. Each of the six GCTs includes 10 five-point Likert-type items in which higher scores indicate more confidence in that domain. The concurrent validity of the SCI has been shown to be acceptable, in that several studies have shown significant ability to predict career choice and aspirations (e.g., Donnay & Borgen, 1999; Rottinghaus, Betz, & Borgen, 2003). Furthermore, the SCI subscales have displayed moderate correlations with each of the respective GOTs from the SII (Rottinghaus, Betz, et al., 2003). The Cronbach’s α coefficients of the SCI subscales range from .85 to .87. Test–retest reliability ranged from .83 (realistic) to .87 (artistic; reported by Parsons & Betz, 1998). The αs in this study ranged from .81 to .87. As expected, in this sample, males reported significantly higher realistic confidence at the p < .001 and significantly lower social confidence at the p < .001 compared to females.

Procedure

Prior to any data collection, all procedures and methods were approved by the authors’ institutional review board. Across four semesters, participants were invited by e-mail to participate in the study. Two follow-up e-mails at 3 and 6 weeks were sent. Participants completed demographic information and the BIS/BAS scales through Qualtrics. The participants were then instructed to the Skillsone.com website to complete the SII and the SCI.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analysis

An analysis of the data across the four semesters of data collection was conducted using the Bonferroni correction. Only one significant difference at the .002 level was identified. Through the use of post hoc comparisons, it was determined that individuals who participated during the summer of 2016 reported overall lower scores for the BIS subscale compared to the fall of 2015, spring of 2016, and fall of 2015. Given only one difference, semester was not considered further in the analyses. Moreover, some gender mean differences were identified at the p < .002 level, namely, males reported significantly higher BIS, realistic interest, realistic confidence, and conventional confidence and significantly lower social interest and social confidence compared to females. Researchers followed up mean differences by examining correlations by gender.

Table 1 presents the correlations of the BAS/BIS with global like/dislike, GOTs, and GCTs. Moreover, correlations by gender were examined to determine whether there were any significant differences by gender using a Bonferroni correction. Only two correlation comparisons were significantly different by gender, namely, the BIS for men was positively related to enterprising confidence and conventional confidence (rs = .13, 23), while the BIS for women was negatively related to enterprising confidence and conventional confidence (rs = −.28, −.12). Given these differences were unrelated to the hypotheses, further analyses were conducted using the entire sample.

Table 1.
Correlations of the BAS/BIS With Global Response Tendencies, General Occupational Themes (GOTs), and General Confidence Themes (GCTs).

BAS BIS

Global like/dislike

Strongly dislike −.05 .16*

Dislike −.03 −.04

Indifferent −.11 −.29

Like .05 .03

Strongly like 31 .13

GOTs

Realistic .07 −.26

Investigative .04 −.06

Artistic .11 .06

Social .12 .14

Enterprising .26 −.03

Conventional −.04 −.08

GCTs

Overall GCT mean .13 −.05

Realistic .06 −.10

Investigative <.01 −.08

Artistic .10 .01

Social .18* .12

Enterprising .20* −.13

Conventional −.02 −.02

Note. N = 265. BAS = behavioral activation system; BIS = behavioral inhibition system.

*p < .01. **p < .001.

Hypotheses

Correlations near or above an absolute value of .20 were considered meaningful for this study using criteria previously used by Larson and Borgen (2006). Moreover, a Bonferroni correction adjusted the p value to .01 (.05/6). As indicated in Table 1, a moderate, meaningful, positive correlation between the BAS and strongly like (r = .31; p < .001) was identified; no significant relation between the BAS and strongly dislike was found (r = −.05; p > .05). Hypothesis 1 was partially supported because individuals who were more sensitive to reward were more likely to strongly like vocational activities.

The BAS was found to have a meaningful relation with enterprising interest (r = .26; p < .001). In regard to the remaining five GOTs as shown in Table 1, there were no significant relations identified (rs ranging from −.04 to .12). Hypothesis 2 was supported in that the BAS related meaningfully to enterprising interest and no other meaningful correlations were identified.

There was a meaningful correlation between the BAS and the enterprising GCT (r = .20; p < .01). Moreover, there was a significant but not meaningful correlation between the BAS and the social GCT (r = .18; p < .01). Furthermore, there were no significant relations between the BAS and the remaining GCTs with correlations ranging from −.02 to .13. Hypothesis 3 was mostly supported.

As can be seen in Table 2, the BIS had a meaningful negative relation with realistic GOT (r = −.26; p < .001), and no significant relations with the remaining GOTs with correlations ranging from −.08 to .14. The BIS had no significant correlations with any of the GCTs. Hypothesis 4 was partially supported in that the BIS was meaningfully related to realistic interest but was not meaningfully related to realistic self-efficacy.

Table 2.
Correlations of the Basic Interest Scales With the BAS/BIS.

BAS BIS

Realistic

Mechanics and construction −.04 −.22**

Computer hardware and electronics −.03 −.18*

Military .11 −.22

Protective services .15 −.12

Nature and agriculture .02 −.09

Athletics .24 −.20**

Investigative

Science <.01 −.08

Research <.01 −.12

Medical science .12 .01

Mathematics −.04 −.16*

Artistic

Visual arts and design .11 <.01

Performing arts .14 .05

Writing and mass communication .03 .13

Culinary arts .32** −.08

Social

Counseling and helping .12 .16*

Teaching and education .10 .11

Human resources and training .18* .05

Social sciences .05 .04

Religion and spirituality .08 −.04

Health-care services .11 −.01

Enterprising

Marketing and advertising .24** .01

Sales .18* −.06

Management .16* <.01

Entrepreneurship .26** −.04

Politics and public speaking .17* −.15

Law .10 .05

Conventional

Office management −.03 .07

Taxes and accounting −.08 −.11

Programming and information systems −.02 −.13

Finance and investing .09 −.16*

Note. N = 265. Basic interest scales are organized by their superordinate general occupational themes. BAS = behavioral activation system; BIS = behavioral inhibition system.

p < .05. p < .01. p < .001.

Additional Analysis

The correlations of the basic interest scales with the BAS and the BIS were examined. The intent was to determine whether the pattern of correlations for the GOT/BAS and the GOT/BIS reported in Hypotheses 2 and 4, respectively, were similar when examining the basic interest scales. As shown by Table 2, the BAS meaningfully correlated with two of the six enterprising basic interest scales and significantly correlated (p < .01) with three additional enterprising basic interest scales. Moreover, the BAS significantly correlated (p < .01) with only three of the remaining 24 basic interest scales. Likewise, the BIS meaningfully correlated with three of the six realistic basic interest scales and significantly correlated (p < .01) with one additional realistic basic interest scale. Moreover, the BIS significantly correlated (p < .01) with only three of the remaining 24 basic interest scales. In short, the pattern shown for the basic interest scales correlations with the BAS and BIS was similar to the findings for Hypotheses 2 and 4.

Discussion

This study showed that the level of reward sensitivity was moderately linked with college students’ tendencies to strongly like various vocational activities (e.g., school subjects, occupations, etc.). As interest has been conceptualized as a motivation toward activities that are perceived as positive and away from those that are perceived as negative (e.g., Staggs, Larson, & Borgen, 2007), it would suggest that being sensitive to rewards is related to globally liking vocational activities. These findings are consistent with the previous findings in the BAS literature (e.g., Carver & White, 1994; Corr, 2004). Moreover, these results corroborate Hansen et al.’s (2011) findings for global like in which they used an earlier version of the SII that had only three response options (like, indifferent, and dislike). However, it remains unclear as to whether the BAS is negatively related to global dislike since these findings did not corroborate Hansen et al.’s previous findings.

BAS and Vocational Interests

The BAS and enterprising interest were found to be meaningfully related. This is consistent with linkages shown between extroversion and enterprising interests (Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002); social potency and enterprising interests (Staggs et al., 2007); and positive emotionality and enterprising interests (Hansen et al., 2011; Staggs et al., 2007). Finally, this study’s mostly null relationships of the BAS with the other domains of Holland’s hexagon are consistent with previous findings (Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002).

The positive relationship of the BAS and enterprising interest is also consistent with RST. Individuals who participate in enterprising activities are likely to be more attracted to external motivations such as recognition, success, and monetary gains compared to internal rewards associated with vocational activities related to the social domain (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994). That is to say, the immediate reinforcement attractive to individuals who have high levels of the BAS (Dufey, Fernández, & Mourgues, 2011) is found in the reward characteristics of enterprising-related careers. This possibility is supported by the findings of Pickering and Gray (2001) that individuals high rather than low in the BAS tend to be more impulsive in their reward orientations and behaviors, which suggest a greater disposition toward immediate reinforcement.

In regard to the biological relation between the BAS and enterprising activities, the dopaminergic reward system is responsible for the level of activation for both the BAS (Depue & Collins, 1999) and enterprising interests (Depue & Collins, 1999; Elliot & Thrash, 2002). As interest has been found to have a strong genetic basis (Betsworth et al., 1994), the identified relation between the BAS and enterprising interests is supported by the brain structures responsible for this level of activation (Hansen et al., 2011).

As hypothesized, null relations of the BAS emerged with social interests. As discussed by Hogan (1983), both social and enterprising interests are posited to be connected by an underlying aspect of high sociability. However, the BAS was shown to anchor to agentic rather than communal aspects of sociability. These findings support previous work showing social closeness and warmth was found to relate to social interests, whereas social potency and assertiveness were found to relate to enterprising interests (Hansen et al., 2011; Staggs et al., 2007). This suggests that although social and enterprising interest may be connected by an underlying aspect of sociability, there may be differences in how social and enterprising activities are viewed as being rewarding.

The BAS may not relate to social interest due to the reward orientation of social career activities. That is, whereas there are multiple areas of the enterprising GOT that offer tangible and relatively immediate rewards (i.e., increased earnings, prestige, immediate feedback of performance), activities related to the social GOT are more likely to have rewards that are more abstract and delayed. For instance, a therapist may not have the opportunity to see immediate gains in their work but rather has a greater orientation toward the meaning or purpose of the work. When the items of the BIS/BAS Scale are considered, many items relate to the former reward orientation (e.g., “When I see an opportunity for something I like, I get excited right away”). Several studies found that individuals who have a high sensitivity to reward gave more effort to an occupational task when provided with monetary incentive (e.g., Gable et al., 2000; Jackson, 2001), providing support for this possibility. Additionally, this explanation is further supported by the findings of Pickering and Gray (2001) that individuals high versus low in the BAS tend to be more impulsive in their reward orientations and behaviors.

This possibility appears to be supported by the relation of the BAS to more specific vocational interests represented by the basic interest scales. Five of the six enterprising basic interest scales related to the BAS at the p level of at least .01 as shown by Table 2.

BAS and Vocational Self-efficacy

The BAS had significant relations to vocational self-efficacy for both social and enterprising activities, but no significant relation with the other self-efficacy domains. These results are consistent with prior research that has shown positive relations of extroversion and enterprising confidence (e.g., Hartman & Betz, 2007; Larson & Borgen, 2006; Larson et al., 2007; Nauta, 2004, 2007; Rottinghaus et al., 2002), extroversion and social confidence (e.g., Hartman & Betz, 2007; Larson & Borgen, 2006; Larson et al., 2007; Nauta, 2004, 2007; Rottinghaus et al., 2002), social potency and enterprising confidence (Larson & Borgen, 2006), and social closeness and social confidence (Larson & Borgen, 2006). Moreover, the null findings are consistent with previous findings of null relations between extroversion and realistic, investigative, and conventional confidence (Hartman & Betz, 2007; Larson & Borgen, 2006; Larson et al., 2007; Rottinghaus et al., 2002).

The relation of the BAS to social confidence but not social interest points out the difference between confidence and interest. The pattern of the meaningful relations of confidence and personality traits (Larson & Borgen, 2006) was not the same as the pattern of relations of interest and personality traits (Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002). If conceptualized using “things versus people dimensions” (Prediger, 1976), both social and enterprising activities would require similar skill sets related to working with people. Thus, one would anticipate that one’s confidence in these two “people” domains would be similarly related to reward orientation. However, reward orientation may be more salient in regard to enterprising interest rather than social interest due to the rewards that may motivate them are more connected to enterprising interests like financial rewards rather than social interests like helping people. These findings need to be replicated.

BIS and Vocational Outcomes

The BIS had a negative meaningful relation with the realistic GOT as well as negatively related to four of the six realistic basic interest scales. These scales include mechanics and construction, computer hardware and electronics, military, and athletics. These vocational areas are considered stereotypically masculine and have implicit masculine values that suggest people in related careers should be stoic throughout all situations (Vogel & Heath, 2016). The items on the BIS subscale reflect ideas contrary to these beliefs (e.g., “Criticism or scolding hurts me quite a bit” or “I worry about making mistakes”), which would suggest that endorsing items related to the BIS would be contrary to realistic interests. Thus, individuals who endorse a realistic interest would likely avoid endorsing items related to the BIS, so that they would not challenge the masculine stereotype.

One other personality trait has been negatively linked to realistic interests, namely, harmavoidance (Staggs et al., 2007). The construct of harmavoidance is thought to represent an individual’s preference for excitement and danger over caution and boredom, and it was the first personality construct that was negatively related with the realistic interest domain (Larson & Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al., 2003, 2007). As the BIS was found to relate to the realistic GOT in a similar pattern as harmavoidance, this may indicate an additional personality construct that relates significantly with the realistic GOT. That is, individuals who endorse interest in these areas may be less sensitive to punishment.

Surprisingly, there was a meaningful negative relation between the BIS and being indifferent toward vocational activities. Although this relation was not predicted nor identified in previous literature, this suggests that the more strongly someone endorses characteristics of behavioral inhibition or sensitivity to punishment, the less likely they are to endorse being indifferent toward vocational activities. Perhaps they have stronger awareness of the things they do not like and would experience negative results from participating in said activities. This is further supported by the significant positive relation between the BIS and global dislike.

Limitations

Several limitations exist within this study that should be noted. First, the population sample was more homogeneous than ideal. These results may not generalize beyond this largely European American sample. Research representing different ethnic groups is sorely needed. Second, the relations among the variables of interest in this study should be examined in populations other than college students (e.g., high school students, working/transitioning adults) to determine whether reinforcement sensitivity relates similarly to vocational outcomes in other contexts. Third, the study was correlational, and we can thus not make causal claims regarding the relations between reinforcement sensitivity and vocational outcomes. Finally, this study indirectly measured activity in one set of neurobiological systems (i.e., the BAS/BIS); we cannot speak directly to participants’ underlying biological processes in these or other portions of the brain.

Future Research and Implications

Several practical and novel areas of study are suggested. The relation of the BAS with enterprising interest and confidence needs to be replicated. As there appeared to be overlap of extroversion and the BAS with overall liking as well as enterprising interests and confidence, further study is warranted to determine the extent of this overlap.

The relation of the BIS and realistic interests would be another area for future research, as this has not been reported in the previous literature. Further research examining the 11 personality constructs embedded in Tellegen’s (2000) Big Three, particularly social potency and harmavoidance, and the constructs of Gray’s (1991) RST is warranted, especially as they relate to vocational interest and confidence. This would help to examine the uniqueness of the contribution that RST has to offer the field of vocational psychology.

This area of research will also benefit from methodological diversity as it continues to deepen. In particular, regression analyses would be beneficial to explore the unique contributions of the BIS and BAS to predicting vocational constructs by controlling for their shared variance. Additionally, moderator analyses would elucidate whether relations between the BIS/BAS and vocational outcomes vary significantly by person factors such as gender, race, socioeconomic status, and level of education.

This study provides preliminary support for the utility of RST in understanding the underlying mechanisms of vocational interest and self-efficacy. Our findings also suggest several practical implications for career counseling. Although use of personality has been suggested as an important factor in career choice (Lent et al., 1994), the empirical relation of vocational interests (i.e., Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002) and confidence (e.g., Hartman & Betz, 2007; Larson & Borgen, 2006; Larson et al., 2007; Rottinghaus, Larson, et al., 2003) with personality has suggested limited meaningful links between these constructs. Because of this, the usefulness of personality in relation to career counseling can be limited to aspects of career longevity, performance, and stability (Holland, 1996). If additional linkages between vocational interests and self-efficacy can be identified using the BAS and BIS, these constructs may provide relevant and easily understandable tools for client use in both career exploration and career decision-making.

	BAS	BIS
Global like/dislike
Strongly dislike	−.05	.16*
Dislike	−.03	−.04
Indifferent	−.11	−.29**
Like	.05	.03
Strongly like	31**	.13
GOTs
Realistic	.07	−.26**
Investigative	.04	−.06
Artistic	.11	.06
Social	.12	.14
Enterprising	.26**	−.03
Conventional	−.04	−.08
GCTs
Overall GCT mean	.13	−.05
Realistic	.06	−.10
Investigative	<.01	−.08
Artistic	.10	.01
Social	.18*	.12
Enterprising	.20*	−.13
Conventional	−.02	−.02

	BAS	BIS
Realistic
Mechanics and construction	−.04	−.22**
Computer hardware and electronics	−.03	−.18*
Military	.11	−.22**
Protective services	.15	−.12
Nature and agriculture	.02	−.09
Athletics	.24**	−.20**
Investigative
Science	<.01	−.08
Research	<.01	−.12
Medical science	.12	.01
Mathematics	−.04	−.16*
Artistic
Visual arts and design	.11	<.01
Performing arts	.14	.05
Writing and mass communication	.03	.13
Culinary arts	.32**	−.08
Social
Counseling and helping	.12	.16*
Teaching and education	.10	.11
Human resources and training	.18*	.05
Social sciences	.05	.04
Religion and spirituality	.08	−.04
Health-care services	.11	−.01
Enterprising
Marketing and advertising	.24**	.01
Sales	.18*	−.06
Management	.16*	<.01
Entrepreneurship	.26**	−.04
Politics and public speaking	.17*	−.15
Law	.10	.05
Conventional
Office management	−.03	.07
Taxes and accounting	−.08	−.11
Programming and information systems	−.02	−.13
Finance and investing	.09	−.16*

Footnotes

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank Dena Besler for her assistance with editing this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Amabile

T. M.

Hill

K. G.

Hennessey

B. A.

Tighe

E. M.

(1994). The work preference inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 950–967. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.5.950

Bailey

D. C.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

Gasser

C. E.

(2008). Changing of the guard: Interpretive continuity of the 2005 Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 135–155. doi:10.1177/1069072707313180

Barrick

M. R.

Mount

M. K.

Gupta

(2003). Meta-analysis of the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and Holland’s occupational types. Personnel Psychology, 56, 45–74. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00143.x

Betsworth

D. G.

Cooper

C. R.

Grotevant

H. D.

Hansen

J. I. C.

Scarr

Weinberg

R. A.

(1994). Genetic and environmental influences on vocational interests assessed using adoptive and biological families and twins reared apart and together. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 263–278. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1994.1018

Betz

N. E.

Borgen

F. H.

(2000). The future of career assessment: Integrating vocational interests with self-efficacy and personal styles. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 329–338. doi:10.1177/106907270000800402

Betz

Borgen

F. H.

Harmon

(2005). Skills Confidence Inventory manual: Research, development, and strategies for interpretation. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Carver

C. S.

White

T. L.

(1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319–333. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.2.319

Cohen

(1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

Corr

P. J.

(2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28, 317–332. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005

10.

Costa

P. T.

McCrae

R. R.

(1992). Neo PI-R professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

11.

Depue

R. A.

Collins

P. F.

(1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 491–517. doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002046

12.

Depue

R. A.

Luciana

Arbisi

Collins

Leon

(1994). Dopamine and the structure of personality: Relation of agonist-induced dopamine activity to positive emotionality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 485–498. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.3.485

13.

Donnay

D. A. C.

Borgen

F. H.

(1999). The incremental validity of vocational self-efficacy: An examination of interest, self-efficacy, and occupation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 432–447. doi:10.1037//0022-0167.46.4.432

14.

Donnay

D. A. C.

Thompson

Morris

Schaubhut

(2005). Strong Interest Inventory manual: Research, development, and strategies for interpretation. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

15.

Dufey

Fernández

A. M.

Mourgues

(2011). Assessment of the behavioral inhibition system and the behavioral approach system: Adaptation and validation of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) in a Chilean Sample. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14, 432–440. doi:10.5209/rev_sjop.2011.v14.n1.39

16.

Elliot

A. J.

Thrash

T. M.

(2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 804–818. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.5.804

17.

Gable

S. L.

Reis

H. T.

Elliot

A. J.

(2000). Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1135–1149. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.6.1135

18.

Gray

J. A.

(1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8, 249–266. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0

19.

Gray

J. A.

(1991). Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect. New York, NY: Raven Press.

20.

Hansen

J. I. C.

Sullivan

B. A.

Luciana

(2011). A social neuroscientific model of vocational behavior. Journal of Career Assessment, 19, 216–227. doi:10.1177/1069072710395529

21.

Hartman

R. O.

Betz

N. E.

(2007). The five-factor model and career self-efficacy: General and domain-specific relationships. Journal of Career Assessment, 15, 145–161. doi:10.1177/1069072706298011

22.

Hogan

(1983). A socioanalytic theory of personality. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

23.

Holland

J. L.

(1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions. American Psychologist, 51, 397–406. doi:10.1037//0003-066x.51.4.397

24.

Holland

J. L.

(1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

25.

Jackson

C. J.

(2001). Comparison between Eysenck’s and Gray’s models of personality in the prediction of motivational work criteria. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 129–144. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00124-0

26.

Jorm

A. F.

Christensen

Henderson

A. S.

Jacomb

P. A.

Korten

A. E.

Rodgers

(1998). Using the BIS/BAS scales to measure behavioural inhibition and behavioural activation: Factor structure, validity and norms in a large community sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 49–58. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00143-3

27.

Kaplan

R. M.

Saccuzzo

D. P.

(2005). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth.

28.

Larson

L. M.

(2012). Worklife across the lifespan. In Hansen

J. I.

Altmeir

(Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 128–178). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

29.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

(2002). Convergence of vocational interests and personality: Examples in an adolescent gifted sample. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 91–112. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1821

30.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

(2006). Do personality traits contribute to vocational self-efficacy? Journal of Career Assessment, 14, 295–311. doi:10.1177/1069072706286446

31.

Larson

L. M.

Rottinghaus

P. J.

Borgen

F. H.

(2002). Meta-analyses of Big Six interests and Big Five personality factors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 217–239. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1854

32.

Larson

L. M.

Wei

T. F.

Borgen

F. H.

Bailey

D. C.

(2007). Discriminating among educational majors and career aspirations in Taiwanese undergraduates: The contribution of personality and self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 395–408. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.4.395

33.

Lattimore

R. R.

Borgen

F. H.

(1999). Validity of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory with racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 185–195. doi:10.1037//0022-0167.46.2.185

34.

Lent

R. W.

Brown

S. D.

Hackett

(1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79–122. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027

35.

McNaughton

Corr

P. J.

(2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28, 285–305. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005

36.

McNaughton

Gray

J. A.

(2000). Anxiolytic action on the behavioural inhibition system implies multiple types of arousal contribute to anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61, 161–176. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(00)00344-x

37.

Multon

K. D.

Brown

S. D.

Lent

R. W.

(1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30–38. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30

38.

Nauta

M. M.

(2004). Self-efficacy as a mediator of the relationships between personality factors and career interests. Journal of Career Assessment, 12, 381–394. doi:10.1177/1069072704266653

39.

Nauta

M. M.

(2007). Career interests, self-efficacy, and personality as antecedents of career exploration. Journal of Career Assessment, 15, 162–180. doi:10.1177/1069072706298018

40.

Parsons

Betz

N. E.

(1998). Test-retest reliability and validity studies of the Skills Confidence Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 6, 1–12. doi:10.1177/106907279800600101

41.

Pickering

Gray

J. A.

(2001). Dopamine, appetitive reinforcement, and the neuropsychology of human learning: An individual differences approach. In Angleitner

(Ed.), Advances in individual differences research (pp. 113–149). Lengerich, Germany: PABST Science.

42.

Prediger

D. J.

(1976). A world of work map for career exploration. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 24, 198–208. doi:10.1002/j.2164-585x.1976.tb00921.x

43.

Read

S. J.

Monroe

B. M.

Brownstein

A. L.

Yang

Chopra

Miller

L. C.

(2010). A neural network model of the structure and dynamics of human personality. Psychological Review, 117, 61–92. doi:10.1037/a0018131

44.

Rottinghaus

P. J.

Betz

N. E.

Borgen

F. H.

(2003). Validity of parallel measures of vocational interests and confidence. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 355–378. doi:10.1177/1069072703255817

45.

Rottinghaus

P. J.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

(2003). The relation of self-efficacy and interests: A meta-analysis of 60 samples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62, 221–236. doi:10.1016/s0001-8791(02)00039-8

46.

Rottinghaus

P. J.

Lindley

L. D.

Green

M. A.

Borgen

F. H.

(2002). Educational aspirations: The contribution of personality, self-efficacy, and interests. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 1–19. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1843

47.

Sheu

H. B.

Lent

R. W.

Brown

S. D.

Miller

M. J.

Hennessy

K. D.

Duffy

R. D.

(2010). Testing the choice model of social cognitive career theory across Holland themes: A meta-analytic path analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 252–264. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2009.10.015

48.

Smillie

L. D.

(2008). What is reinforcement sensitivity? Neuroscience paradigms for approach-avoidance process theories of personality. European Journal of Personality, 22, 359–384. doi:10.1002/per.674

49.

Smillie

L. D.

Jackson

C. J.

(2005). The appetitive motivation scale and other BAS measures in the prediction of approach and active avoidance. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 981–994. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.013

50.

Staggs

G. D.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

(2003). Convergence of specific factors in vocational interests and personality. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 243–261. doi:10.1177/1069072703254499

51.

Staggs

G. D.

Larson

L. M.

Borgen

F. H.

(2007). Convergence of personality and interests: Meta-analysis of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire and the Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Career Assessment, 15, 423–445. doi:10.1177/1069072707305760

52.

Sullivan

B. A.

Hansen

J. I. C.

(2004). Mapping associations between interests and personality: Toward a conceptual understanding of individual differences in vocational behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 287–298. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.3.287

53.

Tellegen

(1982). Brief manual for the multidimensional personality questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.

54.

Tellegen

(2000). Manual for the multidimensional personality questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

55.

van der Linden

Beckers

D. G.

Taris

T. W.

(2007). Reinforcement sensitivity theory at work: Punishment sensitivity as a temperamental source of job-related stress. European Journal of Personality, 21, 889–909. doi:10.1002/per.660

56.

Vogel

D. L.

Heath

(2016). Men, masculinities, and help-seeking patterns. In Wester

S. R.

Wong

(Eds.), APA handbook for the psychology of men and masculinities (pp. 685–707). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

57.

Waller

N. G.

Lilienfeld

S. O.

Tellegen

Lykken

D. T

. (1991). The tridimensional personality questionnaire: Structural validity and comparison with the multidimensional personality questionnaire. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26, 1–23. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2601_1