Perceptions of Career Agency and Career Calling in Mid-Career: A Qualitative Investigation

Abstract

This qualitative study examined the perceptions of career agency and career calling among 35 U.S. mid-career foreign missionaries from four organizations who reported a sense of living out a calling. In-depth interviews were analyzed using grounded theory methodology to describe participant perspectives on calling and agency with the goal of understanding factors that contribute to living a calling. Data analysis revealed two main themes, nine categorical sub-themes, and 18 base concepts. The first theme, calling as a dynamic lived experience, affirms elements of Work as Calling Theory and indicates a need to clarify the role of prosocial orientation in calling. The second theme, socio-contextual factors perceived as influencing lived callings, offers insights regarding the need to explore a more robust integration of socio-contextual factors into Work as Calling Theory. A hypothesis regarding the relation between cultural competence and living a calling is proposed for future testing.

Keywords

calling agency cultural competence prosocial orientation mid-career work as calling theory qualitative

Introduction

Career calling has emerged during the past decade as an important topic of research in the fields of psychology, career counseling, and organizational behavior (Duffy et al., 2012; Hirschi, 2012; Peterson et al., 2009). A predominant theme in this research is that calling is not static, but dynamic (Dik et al., 2012; Dobrow, 2013). Calling can grow and develop over time or it can be frustrated and diminished. Researchers also make a clear distinction between perceiving that one has a calling and having the opportunity to live it out (Duffy et al., 2013, 2016). In addition, career agency or work volition correlates with the perception of work meaning and lived callings (Duffy et al., 2016; O’Meara & Campbell, 2011). The recently posited Work as Calling Theory (WCT) integrates existing conceptual and empirical research into a theoretical framework to explain the various predictors, moderating variables, and outcomes of career calling (Duffy et al., 2018). WCT research and theoretical development is limited by its tendency to use quantitative methods to examine relations between predetermined variables. This research strategy risks overlooking contextual factors and variables that are perceived as significant to those individuals who are actually living out their callings. For this reason, the current study utilized qualitative methods to evaluate the boundaries of the existing theoretical model and take a more holistic view of the influence that personal, social, and cultural factors might play in Work as Calling Theory. A benefit of this qualitative approach is that it further grounds theoretical development in the lived experiences of a carefully selected population and it allows their collective voices to help researchers explore new areas of understanding (Charmaz, 2014). Because there are limited studies investigating Work as Calling Theory qualitatively, this study applies qualitative research methods to provide rich thick descriptions of interviewee perceptions and lived experiences related to career calling and agency (Bott et al., 2017). This study also follows principles of positive psychology to focus on exemplary cases of workers who successfully make agentic decisions to live out their callings (Seligman, 2011).

The current study sought to build upon existing research to further our understanding of career calling and career agency by focusing on mid-career workers who are living out their callings. This study focuses on career calling and agency in mid-career since this a period during the lifespan when many adults begin to experience greater clarity regarding their callings, increased freedom and influence in life and career choices, and internally and externally imposed limitations on life choices due to self-understanding and the circumstances of midlife (Bloom, 2017). Super’s Life-span, Life-space Theory provides key insights regarding the unique vocational challenges and opportunities faced by those in midlife. Twenty-five to 44 year olds in the establishment phase are typically involved in establishing their self-concept in their work role through the tasks of stabilizing, consolidating, and advancing in their careers (Hartung, 2013). Forty-five to 64 year olds in the maintenance phase engage in a process of vocational evaluation that might lead them to hold onto, update, or take new steps to innovate their careers (Savickas, 2002). Super’s observations regarding the developmental tasks associated with mid-career underscores the importance of understanding career calling and career agency during midlife. There are a limited number of studies that explicitly explore the notions of career calling and career agency during this developmental timeframe. In one study, S. Y. Kim et al. (2018) discovered that survival needs such as financial and family needs correlate with psychological well-being for midlife adults and often triggered “the decision to seek a midlife career transition” (p. 420). Self-determination and relatedness needs also correlated with psychological well-being in their study. Complex factors such as self-awareness, survival needs, agentic capacity and social capital during midlife point to the need to explore qualitatively the experiences of those who are thriving in their career choices and calling during midlife.

A core problem that this study sought to explore is that not all people are able to live out their calling during midlife. Frustrated callings can lead to a diminished sense of well-being and lower levels of career commitment, organizational commitment and work performance (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Duffy et al., 2013; Rawat & Nadavukakere, 2015). In addition, those who do not perceive that they have choice in their career decisions are not as likely to experience a sense of living a calling (Duffy et al., 2018). In general, understanding career calling and decision making during midlife is important to promoting the well-being of both individuals and the organizations in which they work. A specific concern of the current study is that clarity of calling and assigning roles that align with one’s calling are critical contributors to missionary health and retention (Hay et al., 2007; Taylor, 1997). Mission CEOs also recognize that worker retention is critical to the effectiveness of their organizations (Newell, 2017). While existing research tends to address missionary callings theologically or from the perspective of initial perceptions of callings, little research explores missionary callings from a developmental or process-oriented approach as in Work as Calling Theory. This study seeks to explore the general problem of career calling and decision making in mid-career by looking at the specific context of evangelical Protestant mission organizations. This sample is also important because it is likely to provide specific insights regarding the experiences of those who embrace a transcendent or neo-classical view of calling (Dik & Shimizu, 2019).

The present study sought to investigate the research question: What are the perceptions of agency and career calling among U. S. mid-career foreign missionaries? The descriptive nature of the research question, with its emphasis on the inner experiences and perceptions of human participants, led to the adoption of a qualitative research approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Semi-structured interviews with a sample of 35 mid-career missionaries were conducted and analyzed using principles of grounded theory methodology to identify emergent themes and develop hypotheses for further testing. The overarching purpose of this study was to describe experiences of career agency and career calling during mid-career to understand the factors that contribute to a sense of being able to live out one’s calling.

Background Literature and Definitions

Although this study followed general principles of grounded theory analysis, existing literature informed the development of questions within the semi-structured interview protocol. Miles et al. (2014) argue that detailed instrumentation based on prior research helps to focus qualitative research, improve dialogue across studies, and support the dependability and meaningfulness of research findings. Brinkman and Kvale (2015) describe this strategy as thematizing the study. A brief literature review with key definitions is provided to highlight core ideas informing the research design and discussion of findings.

Career calling

Dik and Shimizu (2019) point out that there appears to be a continuum of definitions related to career calling that includes a neoclassical emphasis on transcendent summons on the one side and a modern emphasis on meaning-making on the other. Callings, however diversely defined, are widely experienced in the American workforce with 50% reporting a sense of calling (Duffy et al., 2015). In this study, career calling is defined neo-classically as “an approach to work that aligns with a sense of personal meaning, is motivated by prosocial values, and arises in response to a transcendent summons” (Duffy et al., 2012, p. 50). In their investigation of calling among zookeepers, Bunderson and Thompson (2009) similarly defined calling neo-classically to emphasize the notion of a transcendent summons. A neoclassical approach does not necessarily minimize the role of meaning-making in perceptions about calling.

Work as Calling Theory (WCT) is based on dozens of research articles published over the past 10 years (Duffy et al., 2018). A central tenet of this theory is the idea that perceiving a calling and living a calling are distinct, but related constructs. While perceived callings predict lived callings, lived callings provide a critical link to the experience of well-being outcomes such as work and life satisfaction (Duffy et al., 2018). Living a calling is a dynamic personal state that both produces and is the result of work meaning and career commitment (Duffy et al., 2014, 2016; Malloy & Foust, 2016). Callings can also lead to negative outcomes such as increased expectations of one’s organization, a lack of work-life balance, and burnout (Bott et al., 2017; Bunderson &Thompson, 2009; Duffy et al., 2018).

While various moderating variables between perceiving a calling, work meaning and commitment, living a calling, and well-being outcomes have been enumerated in the 32 propositions of Work as Calling Theory (WCT), a few variables relevant to this study are worth noting (Duffy et al., 2018) First, workers who perceive a calling will choose work environments that they perceive to fit with their personal strengths and characteristics (PE fit), which contributes to a sense of work meaning (Duffy et al., 2018; Lent et al., 1994). Second, organizational support and the motivation to pursue one’s calling (i.e., calling motivation) are important moderating variables that contribute to a person’s sense of work meaning (Duffy et al., 2018). In addition, social support, autonomy, and participative decision making are reported to reduce turnover intentions and promote organizational commitment (Humphrey et al., 2007; Rawat & Nadavukakere, 2015). Finally, it is important to note that Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) provided a general framework for the linear design within WCT, but SCCT also underscores the importance of social, cultural, and other environmental factors in individual choices about career goals and interest development behaviors (Brown, 2002; Lent et al., 1994).

Career agency

Career agency is “having a sense of power, will, and desire to create work contexts that meet the individual’s goals over time” (O’Meara & Campbell, 2011, p. 448). A variety of personal factors relate to the perception of career agency. Personal traits such as career adaptability and emotional intelligence predict career agency and work engagement (Coetzee & Harry, 2014; Zacher, 2014). In addition, traits such as future work self-salience, and proactive personality predict agency and entrepreneurial intentions (Cai et al., 2015; Strauss et al., 2012; Tolentino et al., 2014). Career Construction Theory encourages the construction of vocational identity narratives to assist workers in becoming stable actors and flexible agents of change as they continuously author their career stories (Savickas, 2013). In addition, the Psychology of Working Theory suggests that work volition and career adaptability play a powerful role in mediating the relation between contextual factors and decent work (Duffy et al., 2016). There is a need to further explore worker perceptions of internal factors influencing a sense of career agency during midlife.

A variety of relational and organizational factors have also been shown to relate to the perception of career agency. Self-determination Theory (SDT) suggests that motivation derived from a sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness predicts work persistence, work outcomes, and personal well-being while controlled forms of motivation leads to a lack of psychological well-being and work effort (Allan et al., 2016; Deci et al., 2017; De Cooman et al., 2013; Trépanier et al., 2015). In Work as Calling Theory, work volition has been shown to positively relate to living a calling, and predict work meaning, career commitment, and decent work regardless of social class or educational attainment (Duffy et al., 2016). Relational support and feedback at both the organizational and personal level has been shown to enhance work meaning and agency or create the need for work adjustment (Campbell & O’Meara, 2014; Duffy et al., 2013). Organizational support provides an important link between work volition and living a calling (Duffy et al., 2012). Network capital, positive work role models, and prior life experiences have also been found to predict entrepreneurial intention, agency perspective, and agency behavior (Niehaus & O’Meara, 2015; Tolentino et al., 2014). Some researchers caution that organizational subcultures that entail inherent gender or racial bias can either limit personal agency or fuel agentic behavior (Afioni & Karam, 2019; Miller & Callender, 2018). On a theoretical level, job crafting suggests that workers should be empowered to alter their work tasks and relationships to align their personal sense of calling or meaning with their work goals (Berg et al., 2013; Dik & Duffy, 2012). While this research indicates that workers play an agentic role in living out their callings, there is a need to further understand worker perceptions of the relational and organizational factors that support career agency during midlife. By interviewing 35 mid-career missionaries who report a sense of living out their callings, this study sought describe experiences of career agency and career calling that interviewees perceived as contributing to a sense of lived callings.

Method

Participants

Interviewees

A diverse group of 35 mid-career missionaries from four organizations were interviewed, meeting the recommendation of at least 20–25 interviewees for grounded theory analysis (Charmaz, 2014; Creswell & Poth, 2018). The interview sample included a balance of male (n = 18) and female (n = 17) workers with an average age of 45 years. Seven interviewees were single and four were ethnic minorities. Comparison age groupings included: 30–39 (n = 8), 40–49 (n = 20), and 50–60 (n = 7). Comparison regions of service included: Africa (n = 7), Asia (n = 7), Europe (n = 13), Middle East (n = 3), and South/Central America (n = 5). Interviewees serve in 25 different nations outside of the United States. They also served in two denominational and two nondenominational organizations as follows: Organization 1 (n = 11), Organization 2 (n = 11), Organization 3 (n = 8), and Organization 4 (n = 5).

The interviewees in this study reported a high sense of perceived calling with an average score of 4.38 out of 5 on the presence subscale of the Brief Calling Scale (Dik et al., 2012). They also reported a high sense of living a calling with an average score of 6.27 out of 7 on the Living a Calling Scale (Duffy et al., 2012). The mean field tenure was 11.3 years and the mean team size was 8.7 workers. The mean team health scores for interviewees based on a one-item self-report scale was 7.6 out of 10.

Researchers

The author was the primary researcher for this study. I previously served as a foreign missionary with an evangelical Protestant denomination from the U. S. for 7 years. I have a strong sense of personal calling and have experienced occupational transitions from urban pastoral ministry to overseas missionary work to overseas teaching to domestic higher education teaching and administration. These job transitions combined with my own pursuit of lived callings contributed to my interest in this topic. I consulted with two faculty members at another university to receive feedback on research design, measures, data analysis, and conclusions. Their feedback helped frame the interview protocol, establish inclusion criteria for concepts and themes, and clarify the themes in this study. These research consultants are experienced qualitative researchers and provided feedback throughout each phase of this project.

Measures

Initial demographic survey

Prospective interview participants were asked to indicate their nationality, age, gender, marital status, mission organization name, country of service, primary field responsibilities, years of service, and current status. In addition, they were asked to rate the health of their field team on a scale of 1 to 10. This initial survey also contained two brief instruments. The two-item presence subscale of the Brief Calling Scale (BCS) with an internal reliability of .81 was utilized to confirm presence of calling (Dik et al., 2012). The six-item Living a Calling Scale (LCS) with an internal reliability of .85 was used to confirm perception of lived callings (Duffy et al., 2012). These demographic items were used to filter interview participants.

Interview protocol

In order to describe perspectives on agency and career calling, a semi-structured interview protocol was developed using prior instrumentation and conceptual categories so that specific questions were informed by theoretical and empirical literature (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015; Miles et al., 2014). For example, question five investigates participant experiences of living a calling. In addition, wording was adapted from item nine on the Calling and Vocation Questionnaire for the first probe on interview question two (Dik et al., 2012). The resulting interview guide included 11 core questions related to nine main concepts and multiple probes related to specific concepts. The interview guide was tested in a pilot study with three interviewees (Appendix A).

Procedures

First, an initial survey was administered to gather demographic information and filter respondents for sample criteria fit. Second, in-depth semi-structured online interviews were completed with 35 participants (Salmons, 2015). Interview data was then analyzed using principles of inductive analysis from Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2014).

Recruitment

The goal of this study was to complete semi-structured interviews with a sample of mid-career foreign missionaries who reported a sense of living a calling. Eligibility criteria for this study included: (a) U. S. citizenship, (b) current service with a U.S. evangelical Protestant mission agency having at least 100 fully supported personnel, (c) a primary role involving leadership development, church-planting, or spiritual formation, (d) 4–30 years of overseas service, (e) age of 30–60 years, and (f) an average score of five out of seven on the six-item Living a Calling Scale (Duffy et al., 2012). The use of participants from larger organizations was important to minimize the reported negative impact of minimal organizational support for missionaries serving in organizations with less than 50 staff (Hay et al., 2007). Missionaries with at least 4 years of service were recruited to eliminate the influence of the initial transition to overseas work and 30 years was established in other research on midlife work as the upper boundary for sample inclusion (Kim et al., 2018). Since the goal of qualitative research is to understand the experiences of specific groups, these criteria allowed the researcher to focus on the perceptions of experienced U.S. Protestant missionaries with a strong sense of lived calling and who served in similar roles at larger organizations.

Following institutional review board approval, interview participants were recruited through a four-phase process. During the first and second phases, a purposeful criterion sampling technique was used to identify 43 evangelical Protestant mission organizations with at least 100 overseas workers and established works in Africa, Asia, Europe or the Middle East, and South or Central America. Of these, a convenience sampling strategy was used to recruit two denominational and two non-denominational agencies. In the third phase, agency representatives referred workers meeting the inclusion criteria for this study. As a result of this criterion and purposive sampling strategy, 64 workers volunteered or were referred to participate in this study. An initial survey and consent form was sent to 60 workers and 53 returned the completed forms. Based on the initial survey responses, 9 potential participants were eliminated and 35 of the remaining 44 qualified participants were recruited using a theoretical sampling strategy to build a diverse group of interviewees that would allow for cross-case comparison based on region of service, organization, gender, marital status, and age group.

Data collection

As a first step, an informed consent form and initial demographic survey data was e-mailed to individuals agreeing to participate in this study. Initial survey data was used to build the final interview sample and report descriptive data for these informants. Next, in-depth semi-structured interviews averaging 71 minutes were conducted using Zoom web-conferencing software. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed word-for-word using transcription software, and then reviewed by the researcher to correct errors and confirm accuracy. Transcription resulted in 480 pages of single spaced text. All interviewees received a $20 donation as a token of appreciation for their participation in this study.

Risk management

Since this study focused on cases of lived callings, positive recollections were emphasized and risk was minimized. In addition, there was nothing in the data collection instruments that was inherently harmful to participants. The two instruments embedded in the initial survey are published and there is minimal risk associated with their use. Other items in the initial survey and interview protocol used question forms that are similar to those in typical educational or market research that seeks to understand participant experiences. In order to protect participant data and maintain confidentiality, all data including consent forms, initial surveys, audio files, and transcripts were stored on a password protected device accessible only by the researcher. In addition, published findings use pseudonyms and exclude self-identifying information.

Data Analysis

Thematic data analysis was completed using grounded theory methodology (Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Flick, 2009). Data analysis followed a three phase process including open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Miles et al., 2014; Saldana, 2013). The aim of this coding process was to inductively arrange codes into hierarchical relations so that base concepts are foundational to categories, which are foundational to overarching themes.

Open coding

As a first step of analysis or open coding, 35 interviews were transcribed word-for-word, loaded as separate files into NVivo 12, a qualitative data analysis software program, and demographic case classifications were attached to each file. During preliminary analysis, each transcript was pre-coded by hand to generate a broad list of potential codes emerging from the text (Flick, 2009). In addition, a word frequency analysis was completed in NVivo by looking for the most frequently occurring words and their morphological derivations across all transcripts. For added context, 69 words with three or more letters including common words such as articles, prepositions, etc. occurred at least 300 times, 112 at least 200 times, 244 at least 100 times, and 400 at least 50 times. This initial analysis resulted in the identification of several in vivo codes including teams, culture, process, and hardships (Saldaña, 2013). After identifying potential codes, all transcripts were open coded in NVivo 12 resulting in the identification of 103 open codes.

Axial coding

During the second phase of data analysis or axial coding, coded materials were reexamined by going back-and-forth through the data to identify codes to be merged, eliminated or renamed. In addition, the cross-tabulation tool in NVivo 12 was used to identify overrepresentation or underrepresentation of coding sources among demographic subgroups. Conceptual codes classified as variant or not occurring among at least 50% of interviewees were eliminated unless they were overrepresented in a subgroup. The process of moving back-and-forth through the initial conceptual codes to align content and remove variant codes resulted in further merging and deletion of conceptual codes. This resulted in a final list of 49 codes. The resulting codes were further narrowed and hierarchically organized into concepts and categories through a process of axial coding (Flick, 2009; Saldaña, 2013). Fourteen categories and 42 base concepts were identified at this point.

Selective coding

As a third phase of analysis or selective coding, codes were hierarchically organized as main themes, categorical sub-themes, and base concepts. Using the saturation categories recommended in similar qualitative studies, the final analysis focused only on those concepts and categories reaching a saturation level of approximately 75% or 26 sources (Bott et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2005). When relevant, typical concepts and categories occurring among 50%–74% (n = 18–25) of sources are referenced. Concepts and categories occurring among less than 50% of the sample were considered variant. Selective coding resulted in the identification of 21 concepts with at least 26 sources. Further analysis resulted in the final organization of these concepts into two themes, nine categorical sub-themes, and eighteen base concepts (Appendix B). As a final point of analysis, categorical and conceptual sub-themes were designated as “emergent” when they appeared unprompted throughout the interview. For example, emergent sub-themes include hardships, team, step-by-step experiences, and supervisor support. Categorical and conceptual sub-themes were designated as “focus” when appearing as a focused response to a specific interview question. Due to their importance in grounded theory research, emergent themes are emphasized in the discussion of key findings (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).

Trustworthiness

Commonly used practices for data gathering, data verification, and researcher reflection were used to confirm the dependability, credibility, transferability, and confirmability of the study (Flick, 2009). First, field notes related to each interview provide an audit trail to ensure that research procedures were faithfully and accurately maintained. In addition, a research journal was used for analytic memoing, on-going data analysis, and researcher self-reflection (Flick, 2009; O’Reilly & Kiyimba, 2015). The researcher discussed topics of self-reflection with two external research consultants to examine and evaluate potential bias related to topics such as calling perceptions and organizational support throughout the process of data collection and analysis. Second, the credibility or accuracy and truthfulness of the data was confirmed through a process of member checking (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Abbreviated two-page transcripts were sent to 25% of the sample (n = 9) to invite feedback and confirm accuracy (O’Reilly & Kiyimba, 2015). Eight interviewees confirmed the accuracy of transcripts with two offering minor editorial changes. One participant did not reply. Credibility of the data and findings was also examined through a process of data confirmation (O’Reilly & Kiyimba, 2015). Cross-case comparison of gender, marital status, minority status, region of service, and organization confirmed the presence of concepts, categories, and themes across all groups (Miles et al., 2014). Finally, conclusions are linked to thick, rich data to illustrate findings and empower the reader to evaluate the transferability and confirmability of these findings (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Results

In this study, thematic analysis began at the conceptual level in phase one, but concepts were then organized inductively around broader categories and then most broadly around two major themes in phases two and three. All concepts and categories included in this study met a general saturation level of approximately 75% or 26 sources. Some typical concepts and categories occurring among 50%–74% (n = 18–25) of sources are also referenced. Final data analysis resulted in the identification of two main themes: (a) calling as a dynamic lived experience, and (b) socio-contextual factors perceived as influencing lived callings. These two themes were supported by nine underlying categorical sub-themes and eighteen base concepts (Appendix B). Due to religious influences on the sample in this study, it is important to note that the findings below cannot be generalized beyond this particular group.

Theme A: Calling as a Dynamic Lived Experience

The first major theme emerging in this study was the notion that calling is a dynamic lived experience. Four major categorical sub-themes and fourteen concepts support this theme. This theme provides important qualitative confirmation of several elements discussed in Work as Calling Theory (Duffy et al., 2018). It also points to a few items for further investigation.

Category A1: Definition of calling

This category is comprised of one emergent and three focus concepts. As an emergent concept, 26 participants experienced specific callings to serve in specific organizations, roles, or locations. Carl reflected, “We both independently felt God clearly telling us that that’s where he wanted us to go.” Elton described these experiences in terms of subjectively “discerning the voice of God.” Twenty-three interviewees explicitly described a neoclassical view of calling that highlights the notion of a transcendent summons. As a focus concept, 28 participants indicated that God both directs some people to specific occupations or places of service and he gives others freedom to choose in their work. Kaitlyn suggested that perhaps “God guides people differently.” This category calls for continued clarification of the calling construct in such a way that transcendent summons and human choice are not dichotomized.

Category A2: Calling as a process

“Process” and its morphological derivations were used 173 times by 31 participants. In addition, Cynthia asserted that calling is not static. Diane suggested that it “feels much more like a dynamic process.” Tom summarized, “Calling, I would say, came progressively in my life.” This category was supported by three emergent concepts. First, 29 interviewees described calling as a step-by-step process of guidance and action. Carl noted, “God has spoken to me in various ways and led me step-by-step and prepared me.” Sonya commented, “You put one step in front of the other and you always involve God in what the next step is for you.” A word frequency analysis showed that variations of “steps” was used 147 times by 33 participants. Second, 26 participants described calling as a process of gaining clarity about one’s identity and work and receiving confirmation from God about one’s calling. Cynthia described calling as a “refining process” in which people become “more and more focused and clear as they get older.” Interviewees also described how their work choices helped clarify their sense of calling. Finally, 27 interviewees described calling as a lived concept that involves openness to future change. Bethany explained, “I feel like I am called to this place at this time and in this role. Can I say it’s like the final destination? I don’t know.” Hannah added, “It’s not scripted out for me.” Kalika reflected, “I believe everything shapes toward the future.” As an additional focus concept, 23 respondents described an increase in calling confidence as supporting the notion that calling is a dynamic construct. For this sample, calling involves an ongoing process of listening for a transcendent summons, gaining clarity about one’s identity and work, and adapting to future needs and opportunities.

Category A3: Dimensions of calling discernment

Interviewees described various dimensions that contributed to the discernment of initial calling and the ongoing discernment of how to live out one’s calling. Three emergent concepts provide insight into specific dimensions of calling discernment. First, 31 interviewees described social support from family, friends, and spiritual mentors as playing an important role in the process of discovering one’s initial calling and discerning how to live out that calling. Kelvin explicitly noted that discernment “comes through the voices of other people.” Cynthia reflected, “I think there’s a community aspect to calling…. Other people who know me well and who are the inner circle of my life are good people to go back to if I’m having trouble discerning.” Second, 29 interviewees described transformational experiences such as short-term mission trips, conferences, and specialized training as contributing to the discernment of personal calling to overseas service. These experiences were most strongly represented among those in the 30–39 (n = 6) and 40–49 (n = 13) age groups. Third, 28 participants described personal prayer, listening prayer, corporate prayer, and receiving prayer support from others as an important element of discerning how to live out one’s calling. Kaitlin noted, “You pray because God is the guide.”

Category A4: Calling model items

Participants confirmed the importance of several elements of the recently posited Work as Calling Theory in their experience of lived callings (Duffy et al., 2018). One emergent and three focus concepts provide a foundation for this category. As an emergent concept, 28 interviewees suggested that meeting prosocial needs as contextually defined by their occupational role to emphasize spiritual needs was important to their sense of calling. While recognizing the need for a holistic perspective on other’s needs, Mandy specifically described a shift in emphasis from prosocial physical needs to focusing on spiritual needs in her work.

As a second focus concept, 34 participants suggested that the core elements of autonomous extrinsic motivation including autonomy, relatedness and competence are important in sustaining work motivation. Twenty-seven interviewees specifically confirmed the importance of autonomy or freedom to make decisions in work motivation. Nathan described work choice as a motivational element that builds ownership in his work. Twenty-five participants also highlighted the role of relatedness in their sense of motivation. Carl noted that “God designed for us to work together.” Twenty-three interviewees further discussed the importance of competence in work motivation. Rob commented, “If you don’t feel skilled to do what you’re being asked to do, it’s going to be real tough.”

As a third focus concept, 27 participants described divine calling in terms of motivating and sustaining a person in living out their callings even when they face life challenges and hardships. As a final concept, 29 participants indicated that intentional work decisions that consider holistic factors such as family well-being and team dynamics impact one’s overall sense of well-being and contribute to a greater sense of clarity about one’s calling. Person-environment fit (23 sources) and job crafting (25 sources) were two additional concepts positively described by the participants. While work meaning generally appears as an important element of most career calling models, it did not emerge as a specific theme for this sample. A word frequency analysis of meaning showed only 10 occurrences with only five of them relating to the notion of life or work meaning. In addition, the interviewees in this study did not describe their sense of calling or career agency in terms of constructing meaning out of their work.

Theme B: Socio-contextual Factors Perceived as Influencing Lived Callings

The second major theme emerging in this study was the notion that socio-contextual factors are perceived as influencing lived callings. This theme is comprised of five major categorical sub-themes and four underlying concepts.

Category B1: Integrated life

Thirty-three participants described a link between work volition and calling in terms of living an integrated life. Wendy commented, “Freedom and flexibility to make our own decisions does really help us feel like we can live out our calling.” Participants specifically discussed the link between calling and action as a way of living an integrated life. Carlos explicitly stated, “I don’t think that we can dichotomize those things in our lives and in our hearts.”

Three typical concepts also emerged to describe the integrated life. First, 21 interviewees discussed a personal commitment to ongoing growth and learning. Second, 22 participants described calling as a process of spiritual formation. Third, 22 interviewees discussed a stable link between calling and their personal identity and a dynamic link between self-awareness and living out one’s calling. Overall, the participants described an integrative life that includes personal growth and the capacity to make decisions about living out one’s calling in light of one’s total life circumstances as a core context for living a calling.

Category B2: Hardships

Thirty-two participants discussed hardships on 105 occasions. A word frequency analysis revealed that “hard” and its derivations were used 223 times by 34 interviewees. In addition, “struggle” was used 99 times by 27 sources and “challenge” was used 95 times by 29 sources. Even for the mid-career missionaries with a strong sense of living out their callings in this study, hardships are an important contextual reality impacting their calling experience.

Interviewees described experiences of discouragement and depression. Others described the emotional and psychological challenge of adapting to a different cultural context. Several discussed the challenge and sacrifice of raising children overseas. Hannah called it a constant “feeling of being totally overwhelmed.” Still others described conflict with others on their teams. Kevin described this as “the dark side of ministry.” Interviewees discussed the role of calling in sustaining motivation during times of hardship and difficulty. Carl noted, “I think people that remain motivated and on task and on mission are typically ones that have that strong sense of calling, particularly when the challenges come.” In short, the mid-career missionaries in this study suggested that even those with a strong sense of lived callings face hardships that impact their calling experiences.

Category B3: Cultural context

Twenty-nine participants suggested that culture impacts initial calling, preparation for service, discernment, and ongoing decisions about how to live out one’s calling. “Culture” and its derivations were used 238 times by 33 interviewees and “context” appeared 107 times among 26 participants. Thirteen participants specifically discussed personal gifts or talents related to culture and language learning as influencing their call to international work. Language and cultural learning opportunities were also described as supporting the pursuit of one’s calling. Others suggested that the cultural context where one is serving may bring out new or dormant gifts, talents, and personality traits. Moses specifically observed that cultural differences can cause workers to view the world in new ways. Regarding the development of organizational policies, interviewees described the importance of on-the-ground decision-making that is responsive to the cultural dynamics in one’s local context. They emphasized the need to embrace decision-making processes that are sensitive to one’s local context. Navigating cultural differences can be challenging and Ken suggested that a personal sense of calling enabled him to navigate cultural adjustments.

Category B4: Social context

A fourth contextual factor related to the social context of calling is supported two underlying concepts. As an emergent concept, 34 interviewees discussed the importance of teams. “Team” was the most commonly used word by this sample with over 572 occurrences. Henry said that he and his wife wanted to go and “be a part of a team somewhere.” Kaitlyn said that she and her husband chose their first agency in part because of their emphasis on teamwork. Kelly said that she and her husband have struggled at times in their current assignment because they miss the encouragement and input from teammates. Wesley summarized, “You can’t do the work we do by ourselves.” Interviewees also discussed the importance of team fit in discerning work placement. Elton concluded, “I was blessed with a team leader and a team that very much fits my sense of calling and direction.”

Teams provide accountability and social support that is foundational to living out one’s calling. Paris described a vision for teams that operate based on mutual dialogue, respect, and encouragement rather than hierarchy. Carl noted the importance of having “people around you who you’re accountable to” as a way of helping people feel connected when “it’s very easy to feel isolated.” Ron specifically noted that teams hold one another accountable to their callings. Others described the role of teams in discerning future directions. In summary, interviewees suggested that effective teams provide an important context for social support, discernment, accountability, and effectiveness.

As a focus concept, 27 participants indicated that there was a significant lack of dialogue surrounding one’s calling or daily pursuit of that calling after becoming a missionary. Diane suggested that the lack of calling dialogue may be “because everybody thinks you’re called and it’s really clear.” When reflecting on an impending life transition, Nancy said that no one has asked her about her calling or if she thought it might be worked out differently in the next season. Participants recommended that their organization consider embedding ongoing dialogue about calling into institutional practices.

Category B5: Organizational context

General organizational support and direct supervisor support are described as important contextual factors that support lived callings. This category was supported by one emergent and one focus concept.

As an emergent concept, 27 interviewees discussed the important role of supervisor support within their organizations. Derivations of “leaders” and “leadership” were used 402 times by 34 interviewees. Carl suggested that effective team leaders help workers connect in relationships and understand their personal callings and roles. Cynthia described her field leader as being instrumental in helping her to discern her calling and opening doors for leadership within the organization. Diane commented, “I feel very known by the people who supervise me and coach me within the organization.” Chuck described a time when his supervisor helped him engage in job crafting to focus more effort on tasks that align with his gifts and talents. Nancy described local supervisors as “shepherds” who play an important role in helping workers enact their callings. Other interviewees such as Ryan expressed a desire for more support from their supervisors. Carlos said, “I wish I had more relational support with my boss. He is just too busy.” Overall, interviewees described the important role that direct supervisors play in encouraging, guiding, and resourcing staff to effectively live out their callings.

As a focus concept, 31 participants suggested that general organizational support provided through the financial, member care, and training functions of the organization provide support to their lived callings. Diane said that her organization provides a “network of relationships within the organization so I can be learning from other people.” Bethany, Kelvin, and Mandy specifically commented on the language learning support received from their organizations. Others discussed encouragement to participate in leadership development and training programs. Mandy indicated that her organization supports staff by “putting structures in place that help us stay healthy and stay on track.”

Discussion

While Work as Calling Theory (WCT) has established a model for understanding the general relation between perceiving a calling, living a calling, and well-being outcomes, the theoretical model does not address a number of social and contextual elements influencing lived callings (Duffy et al., 2018). The present study addressed these issues by describing interviewee perspectives on lived callings and decision making in work. This study investigated the research question: What are the perceptions of agency and career calling among U. S. mid-career foreign missionaries? Overall, the mid-career missionaries in this sample perceive career calling to be a process-oriented concept that involves both responding to a transcendent summons and enacting one’s calling as an element of an integrated life experience. They also perceive agency or the ability to make decision about one’s work to be both motivating and an essential element of living an integrated life.

Figure 1 provides a model for describing how this sample perceives calling as a dynamic lived experience that is influenced by a variety of socio-contextual factors. The arrow in the middle of the figure emphasizes the process and future-oriented nature of callings. This element of the diagram affirms the most general process elements of Work as Calling Theory including the relations between perceived callings, lived callings, and future well-being outcomes. The figure proposed by Duffy et al. (2018) provides additional elements such as calling motivation, P-E fit, access to opportunity, etc. related to WCT that are not illustrated in this figure. The focused model presented here emphases the idea that movement from perceived callings to lived callings to well-being is an iterative process that is relived throughout each life stage and is future-oriented. The concentric circles surrounding lived callings in Figure 1 illustrate the various socio-contextual factors perceived as influencing the lived callings of interviewees. The research in this study suggests that these contextual factors could be layered on top of the theoretical figure in WCT (Duffy et al., 2018). Emergent concepts related to each context along with potential hypotheses for future testing are highlighted in the discussion below.

Figure 1.

The process and context of calling.

Calling as a Dynamic Lived Experience

The first theme emerging in this study is the idea that calling discernment is a lifelong process of listening for a transcendent summons and attending to various personal and interpersonal dimensions to understand one’s calling as a dynamic lived experience. Four select key findings that both support and further develop our understanding of Work as Calling Theory are discussed below (Duffy et al., 2018).

First, participants indicated that career calling primarily relates to receiving a transcendent summons as in the neoclassical view of calling (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Dik & Duffy, 2012). Twenty-six interviewees described specific calling experiences that they attributed to a transcendent summons. Interviewees also described calling as a process of gaining clarity about one’s identity and work, and adapting to future needs and opportunities. No one described calling in terms of constructing personal meaning out of one’s work as has been described by those embracing a modern view of calling (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997). Although it is possible that the construction of meaning could be an implicit meta-theme that connects the concepts in this study, interviewees were silent on this subject and establishing such a theme was not possible. Dik and Shimizu (2019) recently posited the need for a typological approach to studying the diverse approaches to calling and this study provides qualitative data related to a neoclassical typology. In this type, calling is a dynamic process that involves both transcendent summons and human free action. It is important to note that interviewees in this study were all evangelical Protestant missionaries and their views of spirituality informed their perspectives. Although research on calling exists among work domains such as medicine and education, further exploration of transcendent summons among sample groups in those domains who hold to a neoclassical view of calling is recommended to develop a neoclassical typology (Bott et al., 2017; Bullough & Hall-Kenyon, 2012).

In Work as Calling Theory (WCT), definitions of calling typically emphasize the motivational role of prosocial values or “helping others contribute to the common good” (Duffy et al., 2012, p. 50). Interestingly, WCT does not clearly integrate the notion of pro-social values into the theoretical model beyond inclusion in the definition of calling. A key finding in this study is that participants perceive the meeting of pro-social needs as an important element of their calling. As an emergent concept, interviewees specifically described pro-social needs in terms that are contextually defined by their occupational role. So, the missionaries in this sample showed increased attention to meeting spiritual needs, especially as they transitioned into mid-career. While some missionaries described a vision to meet other physical or social needs during early stages of their career, it appears that the transition from career establishment to management involved a clarified pro-social orientation that focused on meeting spiritual needs (Hartung, 2013). Continued efforts to clarify the role of meeting pro-social needs in Work as Calling Theory and to further explore the relation between pro-social needs and the core purpose(s) of one’s occupation is recommended.

Third, participants described the interaction between calling and motivation in a way that extends beyond the limited role of calling motivation in Work as Calling Theory (Duffy et al., 2018). Where WCT seems to identify calling motivation as an initial willingness “to invest to pursue a calling,” this study found that calling motivation is more dynamic and sustained (Duffy et al., 2018, p. 429). So, initial callings provide motivation to pursue a calling and they also become landmark events that sustain calling motivation throughout one’s journey. In addition, calling motivation is sustained by the ongoing experience of relatedness, autonomy, and competence. These core elements of Self-determination Theory (SDT) are foundational to the WCT concept of calling motivation, but the dynamic and sustained nature of SDT needs are not well defined in the current conceptualization of calling motivation. Continued efforts to clarify the dynamic nature of calling motivation is recommended.

Fourth, the role of person-environment fit (PE fit) and job crafting within Work as Calling Theory are affirmed (Duffy et al., 2018). Regarding PE fit, twenty-three interviewees described the alignment of personal calling, gifting, and talents with one’s work environment and responsibilities as important to having a sense of lived calling. Regarding the notion of job crafting, twenty-five interviewees recommended that others pursue job crafting strategies that emphasized calling to task fit through the modification of tasks or the modification of one’s calling perspective. The notion of modifying one’s calling perspective or calling crafting may be a fruitful concept for further investigation. Regarding proactive personality, 21 interviewees described themselves as people who take action to make positive changes and move initiatives in new directions. As noted in WCT, this affirms the potential role of personality in both the process of living a calling and in producing positive work outcomes.

Based on the findings of this first theme, a potential weakness of WCT seems to be an overly linear design that does not account for the idea that certain elements such as calling motivation, job crafting, and personality are influential at multiple stages of enacting a calling. Even the notion of living a calling appears linearly in the WCT model as an outcome that mediates either positive or negative work and life outcomes. If calling is a dynamic process, perhaps several of the core elements of the WCT model need to be reframed to recognize their dynamic and continued emergence throughout the process of pursuing and living out a calling. Integrating a cyclical or looping model of the relations between the core elements of WCT in such a way that direct relations continue to be illustrated, but the iterative, contextually influenced, and forward looking nature of lived callings are also more clearly illustrated could be helpful.

Socio-Contextual Factors Influencing Lived Callings

The second major theme emerging in this study is the idea that diverse contextual factors including one’s cultural setting, life hardships, personal health and growth, social support, and organizational support are perceived as influencing the process of living out one’s calling. These socio-contextual factors are represented by the five concentric circles around lived calling in Figure 1. These findings are important because they offer additional insight regarding social and contextual factors that influence lived calling experiences. While Work as Calling Theory (WCT) emphasizes access to opportunity as a social and contextual variable that predicts lived callings, the findings of this study indicates that socio-contextual factors influence the process of living out a calling in ways that extend beyond access to opportunity (Duffy et al., 2018).

First, 33 interviewees suggested that a core element of lived callings is an integrative life that includes personal growth and the capacity to make decisions about living out one’s calling in light of one’s total life circumstances. As previously noted within Self-determination Theory and Decent Work Theory, human agency emerged among this sample as a key element of lived callings (Deci et al., 2017; Duffy et al., 2016). For those experiencing lived callings in this study, positive attitudes toward understanding one’s core identity (22 sources), a commitment to personal and spiritual growth (22 sources), and the ability to exercise work volition (33 sources) were essential contextual elements of a self-system that promoted lived callings. This self-system is widely emphasized in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and Work as Calling Theory (WCT). This sample affirms the foundational importance of one’s self-system in living a calling.

There appears to be implicit within WCT an overly negative view of hardships as it relates to living a calling. Hardships appear in the model as limited access to opportunity, which hinders lived callings, or as personal and psychology difficulties, which leads to workaholism, burnout or exploitation (Duffy et al., 2018). As a second contextual factor, 32 interviewees described experiences of hardship as a normal context of lived callings. Future studies may want to examine the relation between psychological notions such as grit or resilience and living a calling to further understand the positive and negative socio-contextual factors influencing lived callings. In the WCT model, an expanded view of hardship, grit, and resilience could be tested for inclusion within the personality, psychological climate, or access to opportunity components of the theory.

As a third factor, the influence of culture on perceived and lived callings is a significant topic for the continued development of WCT. Duffy et al. (2018) recommend that scholars evaluate the ways in which culture influences the WCT model. Their specific recommendation is based on the comparative cultural assumption that the model may need to be modified for different cultural contexts. Some research already indicates that the core elements of the WCT model apply to diverse cultural contexts (Douglass et al., 2016; Hirschi, 2012; H. J. Kim et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2017). The influence of factors within one’s own cultural context on the enactment of calling has not been well researched. So, even the primarily ethnic majority participants from the U.S. in this sample reported that cultural contexts have an impact on their calling experience. These are the very people whom one would expect to fit well within the parameters of the proposed WCT. This finding indicates that culture is a dynamic context or set of contexts within which callings are lived out. For individuals serving among culturally diverse populations, there may be a correlation between cultural awareness and having a sense that one is able to live out one’s calling.

For this sample, perceived cultural influences on calling include trait-like factors related to culture and language learning as well as developmental capacities for cultural learning and growth. Consistent with the previous discussions of calling as a process, interviewees described cultural factors in terms of a process of learning more about one’s calling and adapting the enactment of calling to fit one’s context. The cultural influence described here is somewhat different from the comparative-cultures approach that WCT researchers recommend exploring (Duffy et al., 2018). In addition, WCT is informed by assumptions from Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), which emphasized that person and environmental variables are more complex than trait definitions and typologies might suggest (Lent et al., 2002). In SCCT, environmental variables such as social and cultural factors are described as “relatively dynamic and situation-specific” (Lent et al., 2002, p. 260). Both SCCT and WCT tend to be based on cognitive and behavioral assumptions that focus on the internal processes directing individual career choices and behaviors. While WCT researchers also acknowledge the influence of social and organizational variables such as organizational support, psychological climate, access to opportunity, and exploitation, a more robust integration of cultural factors into WCT is recommended.

Although it is important to recognize that the current study is influenced by the intercultural life and work contexts of the interview participants, the findings clearly emphasize a process view of cultural identity formation in which growth in cultural awareness relates to enacting one’s calling. A proposed hypothesis emerging from the findings of this study is that growth in cultural competence may be correlated with the perception of living a calling. Future researchers may want to utilize a measure of intercultural competence such as the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) along with calling inventories such as the Living a Calling Scale (LCS) to explore this hypothesis (Duffy et al., 2012; Hammer, 2011).

As a fourth contextual variable, participants suggested that the ongoing discernment of lived callings is supported by the social input of one’s spouse, friends and family, fellow expatriates and team members. Although the notion of teams emerged as the most dominant social context and will be highlighted below, social support systems including expatriate relationships (23 sources), and one’s spouse (22 sources) were also important. In these various contexts, intentional conversations about discerning and living a calling were valued by interviewees.

Thirty-four interviewees suggested that effective teams provide an important context for social support, discernment, accountability, and effectiveness. In a qualitative investigation of calling among physicians, Bott et al. (2017) also identified social interaction with patients, colleagues, students, and family members as helping maintain callings. Self-determination Theory (SDT) specifically highlights the importance of socio-contextual factors such as feelings of autonomy, relatedness, and competence in contributing to work motivation and worker well-being (Deci et al., 2017). The Psychology of Working Theory (PWT) suggests that work provides people with access to the need for relatedness by providing “access to social support and relational connections” (Blustein, 2008, p. 234). Decent work theorists describe social support as a key mediating variable between work volition or career adaptability and decent work (Duffy et al., 2016). The emphasis on relatedness in the empirical and theoretical literature clearly indicates that social support is a foundational need for workers. Interviewees overwhelmingly affirmed the importance of teammates in providing social support to their callings. Organizations may want to consider careful investment in building and supporting healthy teams that meet motivational needs for relatedness and provide a social context in which callings can be enacted. Further research regarding the social and motivational role that teams and other expatriate relationships play in the lives of missionaries, foreign educators, diplomats, and military personal is recommended.

Finally, this sample suggests that direct supervisor support and general organizational support empowers workers to live out their callings. As a focus concept, 31 interviewees indicated that general organizational support provided through the financial, networking, member care, and training functions of the organization help missionaries live out their callings. Unfortunately, 27 participants indicated that they were not asked about their calling or daily pursuit of that calling after becoming a missionary. Organizational leaders would do well to pursue an understanding of the process nature of calling as explained in WCT and implement practices for discussing lived callings through supervisor meetings and in annual review processes. Twenty-seven interviewees also discussed the important role that direct supervisor support plays in encouraging, guiding, and resourcing staff to effectively live out their callings. Interviewees specifically discussed support from direct supervisors, not necessarily those who are higher up in the organization. These supervisors helped workers understand their callings and roles, provided coaching and access to leadership development, and supported teamwork. In other research, Duffy et al. (2012) showed that organizational support mediates the relation between work volition and lived callings. Gillet et al. (2012) found that an organizational supervisor’s effort to reduce need thwarting and satisfying basic socio-emotional needs through autonomy rather than control led to work and life satisfaction among employees. Trimble (2006) discovered that missionaries expressed a desire for “clear communication, verbal encouragement, respect for their opinions, inclusion in decision-making, and mentoring” from their supervisors (p. 358). The importance of direct supervisor support has implications for training programs offered by human resource departments.

Implications for Counseling Psychology Practice and Training

Brown and Lent (2016) identified agency and eudaimonic well-being as two of the three most prominent themes in recent vocational psychology research. The development of Work as Calling Theory (WCT) also highlights the importance of career calling, work volition, and well-being outcomes in vocational psychology (Duffy et al., 2018). Career development theorists, counseling professors, and career counselors can benefit from the concepts in these theories and emerging in the present study. First, agency or work volition is a motivational concept that is relevant to workers in their mid-careers who are seeking to live out a sense of calling. Counseling practitioners may want to consider exploring agency-related interventions, job crafting, or calling crafting practices with clients. In addition, they may want to explore with clients other ways to increase one’s sense of autonomy. Second, hardship is a normal experience for those living out a calling. For those struggling with hardship and its implication for one’s calling, counseling practitioners may want to consider exploring interventions that will help clients reframe hardships, build resilience, and strengthen grit. Finally, a worker’s social and organizational context provides an important context for building motivation through positive relatedness. Counseling practitioners may want to consider helping their clients build strategies for identifying and building teams that cultivate lived callings. They also may want to develop strategies for helping clients discuss with their supervisors the needs that they have for autonomy, support, and development in the pursuit of their callings. These three interventions could also be adopted for those working in human resource departments or career development offices.

Limitations and Future Directions

Limitations

Specific limitations of this study that were not previously accounted for in the research design emerged throughout the research process. As a qualitative study, findings are not generalizable beyond the U.S. mid-career evangelical Protestant missionaries included in the sample. The specifically religious perspective of this sample means that the subjective, spiritual, and neo-classical views of calling expressed in this study may not be transferable to other populations. In addition, the cross-cultural nature of this sample’s work and life context means that findings related to cultural context may not be transferable to other populations. Regarding this sample, it is also important to note that attempts to recruit minority participants under the time constraints of this study were not successful and resulted in a relatively homogenous group of interviewees. Findings may not represent the views of minority U.S. Protestant missionaries. Finally, this study focused on individuals serving in organizations with at least 100 overseas staff and these findings may not represent the experiences of those serving in smaller organizations. Other limitations stem from aspects of the research design including a cross-sectional design based on self-reporting. Data was based on participant selective memories at the time of the interview.

Additional future directions

This study provided rich data that describes calling as a dynamic lived experience that is influenced by a variety of socio-contextual factors. In addition to the future research opportunities discussed above, replication of this study among other exemplary vocational groups including nonprofit workers, educators, doctors, nurses, and military personnel is recommended to further understand the process of calling and the contextual variables influencing lived callings among other groups. Second, a study examining the role of pro-social needs as a construct that is contextually defined by one’s occupational domain is recommended to add a nuanced understanding of pro-social needs in Work as Calling Theory. Third, further investigation of the dynamic nature of calling motivation is recommended. Fourth, a quantitative investigation of the hypothesis that grit and resilience are positively correlated with living a calling is recommended. Finally, a quantitative investigation of the hypothesis that growth in intercultural awareness is correlated with living a calling is recommended.

Footnotes

Appendix B

Themes	Categorical Sub-themes	Base Concepts
A. Calling as a Dynamic Lived Experience (Range of 26–34 Sources)	A1. Definition of Calling (Range of 26–33 Sources)	A1a. Specific Calling Experiences (Emergent, 26 Sources, 57 Ref.)
		A1b. Secular Callings are Valid (Focus, 33 Sources, 45 Ref.)
		A1c. Higher Calling is Questionable (Focus, 33 Sources, 39 Ref.)
		A1d. Discernment—Freedom and Specific (Focus, 28 Sources, 50 Ref.)
	A2. Calling as a Process (Range of 26–29 Sources)	A2a. Step-by-step Experience (Emergent, 29 Sources, 48 Ref.)
		A2b. Clarity and Confirmation (Emergent, 26 Sources, 59 Ref.)
		A2c. Career Adaptability—Open Future (Emergent, 27 Sources, 54 Ref.)
	A3. Dimensions of Calling (Range of 28–31 Sources)	A3a. Discernment—Social Support (Emergent, 31 Sources, 83 Ref.)
		A3b. Transformational Experiences (Emergent, 29 Sources, 57 Ref.)
		A3c. Prayer (Emergent, 28 Sources, 112 Ref.)
	A4. Calling Model Items (Range of 27–34 Sources)	A4a. Prosocial Spiritual Needs (Emergent, 28 Sources, 42 Ref.)
		A4b. Autonomous Extrinsic Motivation (Focus, 34 Sources, 77 Ref.)
		A4c. Call Motiv. (Focus, 27 Sources, 37 Ref.)
		A4d. Career Adaptability (Focus, 29 Sources, 32 Ref.)
B. Socio-contextual Factors Perceived as Influencing Lived Callings (Range of 27–34 Sources)	B1. Integrated Life (Emergent, 33 Sources, 87 Ref.)
	B2. Hardships (Emergent, 32 Sources, 105 Ref.)
	B3. Cultural Context (Emergent, 29 Sources, 81 Ref.)
	B4. Social Context (Range of 27–34 Sources)	B4a. Team (Emergent, 34 Sources, 108 Ref.)
	B4. Social Context (Range of 27–34 Sources)	B4b. Lack of Calling Dialogue (Focus, 27 Sources, 39 Ref.)
	B5. Organizational Context (Range of 27–31 Sources)	B5a. Supervisor Support (Emergent, 27 Sources, 66 Ref.)
	B5. Organizational Context (Range of 27–31 Sources)	B5b. General Organizational Support (Focus, 31 Sources, 48 Ref.)

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Dale L. Lemke

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